Veritasium
Why Boredom is Good For You
updated
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A huge thanks to Brandon Birchak for all his help with this video. To learn how to hold your breath for 5 minutes, or see one of Brandon’s performances, visit eliteperformancedesign.com and https://Sixfootcreations.com
A special thanks to Juan Valdivia for his expert advice on the science of extreme breath holding.
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References:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (n.d.). How your body controls breathing. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. - ve42.co/BodyBreathing
Anatomy, autonomic nervous system - statpearls - NCBI bookshelf. (n.d.-a). - ve42.co/ANS
Biochemistry, oxidative phosphorylation - statpearls - NCBI bookshelf. (n.d.-c). - ve42.co/ncbiATP
Acidosis. Acidosis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). - ve42.co/Acidosis
Evaluation of respiratory alkalosis. Evaluation of respiratory alkalosis - Differential diagnosis of symptoms | BMJ Best Practice US. (n.d.). - ve42.co/Alkalosis
Wilmshurst, P. (1998, October 10). Diving and Oxygen. BMJ (Clinical research ed.). - ve42.co/DivingO
López-Barneo, J., Ortega-Sáenz, P., Pardal, R., Pascual, A., & Piruat, J. I. (2008). Carotid body oxygen sensing. European Respiratory Journal, 32(5), 1386-1398. - ve42.co/Barneo2008
Jeff, & Huffy. (2022, November 17). The Bolt score test: Measure your breathing volume capacity. Marathon Handbook. - ve42.co/BOLT
Lindholm, P., & Lundgren, C. E. (2009). The physiology and pathophysiology of human breath-hold diving. Journal of Applied Physiology, 106(1), 284-292. - ve42.co/Lindholm2009
Physiology, lung capacity - statpearls - NCBI bookshelf. (n.d.-c). - ve42.co/LungCapacity
Panneton, W. M., & Gan, Q. (2020). The mammalian diving response: inroads to its neural control. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 14, 524. - ve42.co/Panneton2020
Baković, D., Eterović, D., Saratlija‐Novaković, X., Palada, I., Valic, Z., Bilopavlović, N., & Dujić, X. (2005). Effect of human splenic contraction on variation in circulating blood cell counts. Clinical and experimental pharmacology and physiology, 32(11), 944-951. ve42.co/Bakovic2005
Gooden, B. (1971). The diving response in man, rat and echidna (Doctoral dissertation). - ve42.co/Gooden1971
Longest duration breath hold - freediving static apnea (male). Guinness World Records. (n.d.). - ve42.co/DivingRecord
What’s the longest a human can hold their breath underwater? BBC Science Focus Magazine. (n.d.). - ve42.co/Southwell2023
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Amadeo Bee, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, Jesse Brandsoy, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Mario Bottion, Max Paladino, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures
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Directed by Derek Muller
Written by Felicity Nelson and Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Ivy Tello
Filmed by Derek Muller
Produced by Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
hensonshaving.com/veritasium and enter code 'Veritasium' for 100 free blades with the purchase of a razor. Make sure to add both the razor and the blades to your cart for the code to take effect.
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References:
List of Broken Arrows -- ve42.co/AtomicArchive ve42.co/BrokenArrowsReport
Declassified Goldsboro Report -- ve42.co/Goldsboro
Operation ChromeDome -- ve42.co/OperationChromeDome
CIA website -- ve42.co/CIA
Cataclysmic cargo: The hunt for four missing nuclear bombs after a B-52 crash -- ve42.co/WoPo
THE LAST FLIGHT OF HOBO 28 -- ve42.co/lastflight
The Voice of Larry Messinger is from this documentary -- ve42.co/Messinger
Even Without Detonation, 4 Hydrogen Bombs From ’66 Scar Spanish Village -- ve42.co/NYTPalomares
Decades Later, Sickness Among Airmen After a Hydrogen Bomb Accident -- ve42.co/NYTPalomares2
Picture of ReVelle -- ve42.co/JackReVelle1
Great NPR where the audio of ReVelle is from -- ve42.co/JackReVelle2
CIA Website -- ve42.co/CIA
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, Jesse Brandsoy, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Mario Bottion, MaxPal, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures
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Directed by Petr Lebedev
Written by Petr Lebedev and Derek Muller
Edited by Peter Nelson
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, Ivy Tello and Mike Radjabov
Filmed by Derek Muller
Produced by Petr Lebedev and Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
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Huge thanks to Prof. Colin Adams for his excellent help guiding us through the world of knots.
Many thanks to Prof. Doug Smith, Dorian Raymer, Prof. David Leigh, and Prof. Dorothy Buck for helping us understand applications of knot theory.
Many thanks to Prof. Dan Silver & Prof. Jim Hoste for speaking with us about the history and tabulation of knots.
If you want to learn more about knots and play with them yourself, check out:
The amazing KnotPlot tool — knotplot.com/. Thanks to Rob Scharein for providing technical help as well!
A table of knots and all their invariants — https://knotinfo.math.indiana.edu/
The Knot Atlas for general info on knots — http://katlas.org/wiki/Main_Page
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Knot Theory Video References – ve42.co/KnotTheoryRefs
Images & Video:
Alexander Cutting the Gordian Knot by Donato Creti via Fine Art America - ve42.co/GordianCut
Indus Valley tablet via Quora - ve42.co/IndusValley
Pages from the Book of Kells via National Trust of Scotland - ve42.co/BookOfKells
Medieval Celtic designs from @thebookofkellsofficial via Instagram - ve42.co/KellsInsta
Chinese knotwork by YWang9174 via Wikimedia Commons - ve42.co/Panchang
Quipu cords by Pi3.124 via Wikimedia Commons - ve42.co/Quipu
Borromeo heraldry via Terre Borromeo - ve42.co/Borromeo
Birman/Jones letter via Celebratio Mathematica - ve42.co/JonesBirman
Molecular trefoil knot by M stone via Wikimedia Commons - ve42.co/TrefoilMolecule
X-ray structure of trefoil knot by Ll0103 via Wikimedia Commons - ve42.co/XrayTrefoil
Bacteria animation from Your Body's Molecular Machines by Drew Berry via the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research - http://wehi.tv
Topoisomerase and knots from Orlandini et al. Synergy of topoisomerase. PNAS, vol. 116, no. 17, 2019, pp. 8149–8154. – ve42.co/Orlandini2019
KnotProt 2.0: A database of proteins with knots and slipknots - ve42.co/Knotprot
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, Jesse Brandsoy, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Mario Bottion, MaxPal, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures
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Directed by Emily Zhang
Written by Emily Zhang and Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Ivy Tello, Jakub Misiek, and Mike Radjabov
Filmed by Derek Muller, Raquel Nuno, and Emily Zhang
Produced by Emily Zhang and Derek Muller
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci and Mike Radjabov
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – ve42.co/SnatomsV
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Thank you to Eli Dourado for letting us explore the argument he describes in his article: ve42.co/Dourado
A huge thank you to Dan Grossman and Nick Allman for their time, help, and expertise.
Also a massive thank you to those who helped us understand the world of modern airships, and provided valuable feedback - Prof. Barry Prentice, Gennadiy Verba, Prof.
Christoph Pflaum, Heather Roszczyk, Dr. Casey Handmer, Richard Van Trueren, & Thibault Proux.
We are also grateful for the collaboration of the companies who are working hard to make this comeback happen - Atlas LTA, Buoyant Aircraft Systems International, Hybrid Air Vehicles, LTA Research, & Flying Whales.
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References:
How Airships Could Overcome a Century of Failure, Bloomberg Originals via YouTube - ve42.co/AirshipsCoF
Why the Airship May Be the Future of Air Travel, Undecided with Matt Ferrell via YouTube - ve42.co/FutureAirships
Airship, Wikipedia - ve42.co/AirshipWiki
Handmer, C. (2020). A quick note on airships. Casey Handmer’s Blog - ve42.co/Handmer2020
UNCTAD (2020). Review of Maritime Transport 2020 - ve42.co/RMT2020
National Transportation Research Center (2023). Freight Analysis Framework Version 5 (FAF5) - ve42.co/FAF5
Hybrid Air Vehicles (2023). HAV - ve42.co/HAV
LTA Research (2023). Lighter Than Air (LTA) Research - ve42.co/LTAResearch
OceanSkyCruises (2023). North Pole Expedition - OceanSkyCruises - ve42.co/NPExpedition
Flying Whales (2023). Flying Whales - ve42.co/FlyingWhales
Buoyant Aircraft Systems International (2023). BASI - ve42.co/BASI
Atlas LTA (2023). Atlas Electric Airships | Atlas LTA Airships - ve42.co/AtlasLTA
Prentice, B. (2021). Hydrogen gas-fuelled airships could spur development in remote communities. The Conversation - ve42.co/HydrogenAirships
Grossman, D. (2009). The Hindenburg Disaster. Airships - ve42.co/Hindenburg1
Hindenburg Disaster, Wikipedia - ve42.co/HindenburgWiki
What happened to the Hindenburg?, Jared Owen via Youtube - ve42.co/Owen2019
National Museum of the U.S. Navy. USS Akron (ZRS-4) - ve42.co/USSAkron
USS Akron, Wikipedia - ve42.co/USSAkronWiki
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Amadeo Bee, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Benedikt Heinen, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, Jesse Brandsoy, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Mario Bottion, MaxPal, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures
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Written by Casper Mebius & Derek Muller
Directed by Casper Mebius
Edited by Jack Saxon
Filmed by Derek Muller, Jamie MacLeod, Han Evans, & Raquel Nuno
Animation by Mike Radjabov & Fabio Albertelli
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Pond5, & Envato Elements
Music from Epidemic Sound & Pond5
Produced by Casper Mebius, Derek Muller, & Han Evans
More footage & photos from:
Thermite Rail Welding video by dulevoz via YouTube - youtube.com/watch?v=rNjosF789X4
O’Rourke, T. (2016). Chronicle Covers: When the Hindenburg burst into flames. San Francisco Chronicle - ve42.co/Hindenburg2
Wind turbine blade transport video by DOLL Fahrzeugbau via YouTube - youtube.com/watch?v=5aPXuap0LZw
Wind turbine blade transport through mountains video by CGTN via Youtube - youtube.com/watch?v=9dtUrY8_1CM
Former Airship Hangar by Stefan Kühn - ve42.co/Aerium
If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – ve42.co/SnatomsV
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A huge thank you to Emeritus Professor Cecil R. Reynolds and Dr. Stuart J. Ritchie for their expertise and time.
Also a massive thank you to Prof. Steven Piantadosi and Prof. Alan S. Kaufman for helping us understand this complicated topic. As well as to Jay Zagrosky from Boston University's Questrom School of Business for providing data from his study.
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References:
Kaufman, A. S. (2009). IQ testing 101. Springer Publishing Company.
Reynolds, C. R., & Livingston, R. A. (2021). Mastering modern psychological testing. Springer International Publishing.
Ritchie, S. (2015). Intelligence: All that matters. John Murray.
Spearman, C. (1961). " General Intelligence" Objectively Determined and Measured. - ve42.co/Spearman1904
Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1907). Le développement de l'intelligence chez les enfants. L'Année psychologique, 14(1), 1-94.. - ve42.co/Binet1907
Intelligence Quotient, Wikipedia - ve42.co/IQWiki
Radiolab Presents: G. - ve42.co/RadioLabG
McDaniel, M. A. (2005). Big-brained people are smarter: A meta-analysis of the relationship between in vivo brain volume and intelligence. Intelligence, 33(4), 337-346. - ve42.co/McDaniel2005
Deary, I. J., Strand, S., Smith, P., & Fernandes, C. (2007). Intelligence and educational achievement. Intelligence, 35(1), 13-21. - ve42.co/Deary2007
Lozano-Blasco, R., Quílez-Robres, A., Usán, P., Salavera, C., & Casanovas-López, R. (2022). Types of Intelligence and Academic Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Intelligence, 10(4), 123. - ve42.co/Blasco2022
Kuncel, N. R., & Hezlett, S. A. (2010). Fact and fiction in cognitive ability testing for admissions and hiring decisions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(6), 339-345. - ve42.co/Kuncel2010
Laurence, J. H., & Ramsberger, P. F. (1991). Low-aptitude men in the military: Who profits, who pays?. Praeger Publishers. - ve42.co/Laurence1991
Gregory, H. (2015). McNamara's Folly: The Use of Low-IQ Troops in the Vietnam War; Plus the Induction of Unfit Men, Criminals, and Misfits. Infinity Publishing.
Gottfredson, L. S., & Deary, I. J. (2004). Intelligence predicts health and longevity, but why?. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(1), 1-4. - ve42.co/Gottfredson2004
Sanchez-Izquierdo, M., Fernandez-Ballesteros, R., Valeriano-Lorenzo, E. L., & Botella, J. (2023). Intelligence and life expectancy in late adulthood: A meta-analysis. Intelligence, 98, 101738. - ve42.co/Izquierdo2023
Zagorsky, J. L. (2007). Do you have to be smart to be rich? The impact of IQ on wealth, income and financial distress. Intelligence, 35(5), 489-501. - ve42.co/Zagorsky2007
Strenze, T. (2007). Intelligence and socioeconomic success: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal research. Intelligence, 35(5), 401-426. - ve42.co/Strenze2007
Deary, I. J., Pattie, A., & Starr, J. M. (2013). The stability of intelligence from age 11 to age 90 years: the Lothian birth cohort of 1921. Psychological science, 24(12), 2361-2368. - ve42.co/Deary2013
Flynn, J. R. (1987). Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure. Psychological bulletin, 101(2), 171. - ve42.co/Flynn1987
Why our IQ levels are higher than our grandparents' | James Flynn, TED via YouTube - youtube.com/watch?v=9vpqilhW9uI
Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., Lynam, D. R., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2011). Role of test motivation in intelligence testing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(19), 7716-7720. - ve42.co/Duckworth2011
Kulik, J. A., Bangert-Drowns, R. L., & Kulik, C. L. C. (1984). Effectiveness of coaching for aptitude tests. Psychological Bulletin, 95(2), 179. - ve42.co/Kulik1984
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Amadeo Bee, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Benedikt Heinen, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, MaxPal, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures
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Written by Derek Muller, Casper Mebius, & Petr Lebedev
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Derek Muller, Han Evans, & Raquel Nuno
Animation by Fabio Albertelli & Ivy Tello
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Casper Mebius, & Han Evans
If you want to learn more about Oppeheimer, I strongly recommend the book “American Prometheus” By Kai Bird and Martin Sherwin. It is a remarkable book, very much deserving of the Pulitzer prize it received.
If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – ve42.co/SnatomsV
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A huge thank you to Dr. Martin Rohde and Dr. Antonia Denkova from the TU Delft for proofreading the script and providing valuable feedback.
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References:
Bird, K., & Sherwin, M. J. (2021). American Prometheus: the triumph and tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer. Atlantic Books.
Smith, A. K., & Weiner, C. (1980). Robert Oppenheimer: letters and recollections. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 36(5), 19-27. - ve42.co/Smith1980
Combes, J. M., Duclos, P., & Seiler, R. (1981). The born-oppenheimer approximation. Rigorous atomic and molecular physics, 185-213. - ve42.co/Combes1981
Rhodes, R. (2012). The making of the atomic bomb. Simon and Schuster.
Oppenheimer, J. R., & Volkoff, G. M. (1939). On massive neutron cores. Physical Review, 55(4), 374. - ve42.co/Oppenheimer1939b
Oppenheimer, J. R. (1927). Bemerkung zur Zerstreuung der α-Teilchen. Zeitschrift für Physik, 43(5-6), 413-415. - ve42.co/Oppenheimer1927
Oppenheimer, J. R. (1927). Zur quantenmechanik der richtungsentartung. Zeitschrift für Physik, 43(1-2), 27-46. - ve42.co/Oppenheimer1927b
Born, M., & Oppenheimer, R. (1927). Zur Quantentheorie der Molekeln Annalen der Physik, v. 84. - ve42.co/Born1927
Oppenheimer, J. R. (1928). Three notes on the quantum theory of aperiodic effects. Physical review, 31(1), 66.
Oppenheimer, J. R. (1928). On the quantum theory of the capture of electrons. Physical review, 31(3), 349.
Oppenheimer, J. R. (1931). Note on light quanta and the electromagnetic field. Physical Review, 38(4), 725.
Furry, W. H., & Oppenheimer, J. R. (1934). On the theory of the electron and positive. Physical Review, 45(4), 245. - ve42.co/Oppenheimer1934
Oppenheimer, J. R. (1935). Note on charge and field fluctuations. Physical Review, 47(2), 144. - ve42.co/Oppenheimer1935
Oppenheimer, J. R., & Snyder, H. (1939). On continued gravitational contraction. Physical Review, 56(5), 455. - ve42.co/Oppenheimer1939
Oppenheimer, J. R., & Phillips, M. (1935). Note on the transmutation function for deuterons. Physical Review, 48(6), 500. - ve42.co/Oppenheimer1935b
Malik, J. (1985). Yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki nuclear explosions (No. LA-8819). Los Alamos National Lab.(LANL), Los Alamos, NM (United States). - ve42.co/Malik1985
Ignition of the atmosphere with nuclear bombs -- ve42.co/Konopinski46
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Amadeo Bee, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Benedikt Heinen, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Blake Byers, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures
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Written by Petr Lebedev & Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver & Katrina Jackson
Filmed by Derek Muller
Animation by Fabio Albertelli, Ivy Tello, & Mike Radjabov
Illustration by Jakub Misiek and Celia Bode
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
If you're looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms - a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically: snatoms.com
Check out Gene’s channel here -- @PotatoJet
Massive thanks to Mike Tockstein from Pyrotechnic Innovations @PyroInnovations
and Will Scott from Las Vegas Display Fireworks Inc, for all your pyro knowledge and keeping us safe.
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Massive thanks to Gene Nagata from PotatoJet for filming this episode – check out his wonderful channel for more videos about cameras and FPV drones.
Thanks to Brandon Williams for helping with the chemistry and sourcing of materials.
Thanks to Matthew Tosh for the help with the chemistry conversation about fireworks.
Thanks to Simon Werrett for the help with the history of fireworks.
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Werrett, S. (2010). Fireworks: pyrotechnic arts and sciences in European history. University of Chicago Press
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi.
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Written by Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Ivy Tello and Fabio Albertelli
Filmed by Derek Muller, Hunter Peterson, Gene Nagata, Raquel Nuno
Production by Hunter Peterson and Stephanie Castillo
Additional video/photos supplied by Mike Tockstein/Pyrotechnic Innovations
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang, & Casper Mebius
If you're looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms - a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically: snatoms.com
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A huge thank you to those who helped us understand different aspects of this complicated topic - Dr. Ashmeet Singh, Supriya Krishnamurthy, Dr. Jos Thijssen, Dr. Bijoy Bera, Dr. Timon Idema, Álvaro Bermejillo Seco and Dr. Misha Titov.
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References:
Carnot, S. (1824). Reflections on the motive power of heat: and on machines fitted to develop that power. - ve42.co/Carnot1890
Harnessing The True Power Of Atoms | Order And Disorder Documentaries, Spark via YouTube - ve42.co/OrderDisorder
A better description of entropy, Steve Mould via YouTube - ve42.co/Mould2016
Dugdale, J. S. (1996). Entropy and its physical meaning. CRC Press. - ve42.co/Dugdale1996
Schroeder, D. V. (1999). An introduction to thermal physics. - ve42.co/Schroeder2021
Fowler, M. Heat Engines: the Carnot Cycle, University of Virginia. - ve42.co/Fowler2023
Chandler, D.L. (2010). Explained: The Carnot Limit, MIT News - ve42.co/Chandler2010
Entropy, Wikipedia - ve42.co/EntropyWiki
Clausius, R. (1867). The mechanical theory of heat. Van Voorst. - ve42.co/Clausius1867
What is entropy? TED-Ed via YouTube - ve42.co/Phillips2017
Thijssen, J. (2018) Lecture Notes Statistical Physics, TU Delft.
Schneider, E. D., & Kay, J. J. (1994). Life as a manifestation of the second law of thermodynamics. Mathematical and computer modelling, 19(6-8), 25-48. - ve42.co/Schneider1994
Lineweaver, C. H., & Egan, C. A. (2008). Life, gravity and the second law of thermodynamics. Physics of Life Reviews, 5(4), 225-242. - ve42.co/Lineweaver2008
Michaelian, K. (2012). HESS Opinions" Biological catalysis of the hydrological cycle: life's thermodynamic function". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 16(8), 2629-2645. - ve42.co/Michaelian2012
England, J. L. (2013). Statistical physics of self-replication. The Journal of chemical physics, 139(12), 09B623_1. - ve42.co/England2013
England, J. L. (2015). Dissipative adaptation in driven self-assembly. Nature nanotechnology, 10(11), 919-923. - ve42.co/England2015
Wolchover, N. (2014). A New Physics Theory of Life, Quantamagazine - ve42.co/Wolchover2014
Lineweaver, C. H. (2013). The entropy of the universe and the maximum entropy production principle. In Beyond the Second Law: Entropy Production and Non-equilibrium Systems (pp. 415-427). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - ve42.co/LineweaverEntropy
Bekenstein, J.D. (1972). Black holes and the second law. Lett. Nuovo Cimento 4, 737–740. - ve42.co/Bekenstein1972
Carroll, S.M. (2022). The Biggest Ideas in the Universe: Space, Time, and Motion. Penguin Publishing Group. - ve42.co/Carroll2022
Black hole thermodynamics, Wikipedia - ve42.co/BlackHoleTD
Cosmology and the arrow of time: Sean Carroll at TEDxCaltech, TEDx Talks via YouTube - ve42.co/CarrollTEDx
Carroll, S. M. (2008). The cosmic origins of time’s arrow. Scientific American, 298(6), 48-57. - ve42.co/Carroll2008
The Passage of Time and the Meaning of Life | Sean Carroll (Talk + Q&A), Long Now Foundation via YouTube - ve42.co/CarrollLNF
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi.
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Written by Casper Mebius, Derek Muller & Petr Lebedev
Edited by Trenton Oliver & Jamie MacLeod
Animated by Mike Radjabov, Ivy Tello, Fabio Albertelli and Jakub Misiek
Filmed by Derek Muller, Albert Leung & Raquel Nuno
Molecular collisions video by CSIRO's Data61 via YouTube: Simulation of air
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Pond5 and by courtesy of NASA, NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA Goddard Flight Lab/ CI Lab, NASA/SDO and the AIA, EVE, HMI, and WMAP science teams. As well as the Advanced Visualization Laboratory at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications, B. Robertson, L. Hernquist
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang, & Casper Mebius
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Huge thanks to the Australian Reptile Park for having us over to film – special thanks to Jake Meney for showing us the spiders and Caitlin Vine for organizing the shoot. https://www.reptilepark.com.au
Huge thanks to Dr Timothy Jackson with his help and answering our questions.
Thanks to Seqirus Australia for providing B-roll footage of the antivenom production process.
▀▀▀
References:
Pineda, S. S., Sollod, B. L., Wilson, D., Darling, A., Sunagar, K., Undheim, E. A., ... & King, G. F. (2014). Diversification of a single ancestral gene into a successful toxin superfamily in highly venomous Australian funnel-web spiders. BMC genomics, 15(1), 1-16 - ve42.co/Pineda2014
Isbister, G. K., Gray, M. R., Balit, C. R., Raven, R. J., Stokes, B. J., Porges, K., ... & Fisher, M. M. (2005). Funnel-web spider bite: a systematic review of recorded clinical cases. Medical journal of Australia, 182(8), 407-411 - ve42.co/Isbister2005
Herzig, V., Sunagar, K., Wilson, D. T., Pineda, S. S., Israel, M. R., Dutertre, S., ... & Fry, B. G. (2020). Australian funnel-web spiders evolved human-lethal δ-hexatoxins for defense against vertebrate predators. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(40), 24920-24928 - ve42.co/Herzig2020
Nicholson, G. M., & Graudins, A. (2002). Spiders of medical importance in the Asia–Pacific: Atracotoxin, latrotoxin and related spider neurotoxins. Clinical and experimental pharmacology and physiology, 29(9), 785-794 - ve42.co/Nicholson2002
Fletcher, J. I., Chapman, B. E., Mackay, J. P., Howden, M. E., & King, G. F. (1997). The structure of versutoxin (δ-atracotoxin-Hv1) provides insights into the binding of site 3 neurotoxins to the voltage-gated sodium channel. Structure, 5(11), 1525-1535 - ve42.co/Fletcher1997
Australian Reptile Park. (2022). Snake and Spider First Aid - ve42.co/ARPFirstAid
The Australian Museum. (20 ). Spider facts - ve42.co/SpiderFacts
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Orlando Bassotto, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, and Sam Lutfi
▀▀▀
Written by Katie Barnshaw & Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller and Jason Tran
Animation by Ivy Tello, Jakub Misiek and Fabio Albertelli
Neuron animation by Reciprocal Space – https://www.reciprocal.space
Additional video/photos supplied from Getty Images, Pond5
B-roll supplied by Seqirus Australia
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang & Katie Barnshaw
If you're looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms - a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically: snatoms.com
▀▀▀
References:
Koblitz, N. (2012). p-adic Numbers, p-adic Analysis, and Zeta-Functions (Vol. 58). Springer Science & Business Media.
Amazing intro to p-adic numbers here: youtu.be/3gyHKCDq1YA
Excellent series on p-adic numbers: youtu.be/VTtBDSWR1Ac
Great videos by James Tanton: @JamesTantonMath
▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi.
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller and Alex Kontorovich
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Mike Radjabov, Ivy Tello, Fabio Albertelli and Jakub Misiek
Filmed by Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, & Emily Zhang
▀▀▀
A huge thank you to Peter Harrison for all of his help introducing us to the world of Micromouse – check out ukmars.org & https://micromouseonline.com.
Thank you to David Otten, APEC, and the All-Japan Micromouse Competition for having us.
Thank you to Juing-Hei (youtube.com/@suhu9379) & Derek Hall (youtube.com/@MicroMouse) for usage of their micromouse videos.
Thank you to John McBride, Yusaku Kanagawa, and Katie Barnshaw for their help with Japanese translations.
▀▀▀
References:
Claude Shannon Demonstrates Machine Learning, AT&T Tech Channel Archive - ve42.co/ClaudeShannon
Mighty mouse, MIT News Magazine - ve42.co/MightyMouse
History, Micromouse Online Blog - ve42.co/MMHistory
Christiansen, D. (1977). Spectral lines: Announcing the Amazing Micro-Mouse Maze Contest. IEEE Spectrum, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 27-27 - ve42.co/Christiansen1977
Allan, R. (1979). Microprocessors: The amazing micromice: See how they won: Probing the innards of the smartest and fastest entries in the Amazing Micro-Mouse Maze Contest. IEEE Spectrum, vol. 16, no. 9, pp. 62-65, - ve42.co/Allan1979
1977-79 – “MOONLIGHT SPECIAL” Battelle Inst. (American), CyberNetic Zoo - ve42.co/MoonlightSpecial
Christiansen, D. (2014). The Amazing MicroMouse Roars On. Spectral Lines - ve42.co/Christiansen2014
1986 - MicroMouse history, competition & how it got started in the USA, via YouTube - ve42.co/MMArchiveYT
The first World Micromouse Contest in Tsubuka, Japan, August 1985 [1/2] by TKsTclip via YouTube - ve42.co/MMTsukubaYT
IEEE. (2018). Micromouse Competition Rules - ve42.co/IEEERules
Tondra, D. (2004). The Inception of Chedda: A detailed design and analysis of micromouse. University of Nevada - ve42.co/Tondra2004
Braunl, T. (1999). Research relevance of mobile robot competitions. IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 32-37 - ve42.co/Braunl1999
All Japan Micromouse 2017 by Peter Harrison, Micromouse Online - ve42.co/RedComet
Winning record of the national competition micromouse (half size) competition. mm3sakusya @ wiki (Google translated from Japanese) - ve42.co/JapanFinishTimes
The Fosbury Flop—A Game-Changing Technique, Smithsonian Magazine - ve42.co/FosburyFlop
Gold medal winning heights in the Men's and Women's high jump at the Summer Olympics from 1896 to 2020, Statistica - ve42.co/HighJump
Zhang, H., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., & Soon, P. L. (2016). Design and realization of two-wheel micro-mouse diagonal dashing. Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems, 31(4), 2299-2306. - ve42.co/Zhang2016
Micromouse Turn List, Keri’s Lab - ve42.co/MMTurns
Green Ye via YouTube - ve42.co/Greenye
Classic Micromouse, Excel 9a. Demonstrate fan suction, by TzongYong Khiew via YouTube - ve42.co/MMFanYT
Vacuum Micromouse by Eliot, HACKADAY - ve42.co/MMVacuum
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi.
▀▀▀
Written by Tom Lum and Emily Zhang
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Ivy Tello
Coordinated by Emily Zhang
Filmed by Yusaku Kanagawa, Emily Zhang, and Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ren Hurley and Ignat Berbeci
References by Katie Barnshaw
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
A huge thanks to David Lovett for showing me his awesome relay and vacuum tube based computers. Check out his YouTube channel @UsagiElectric
▀▀▀
References:
Herring, C., & Nichols, M. H. (1949). Thermionic emission. Reviews of modern physics, 21(2), 185. – ve42.co/Herring1949
Goldstine, H. H., & Goldstine, A. (1946). The electronic numerical integrator and computer (eniac). Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 2(15), 97-110. – ve42.co/ENIAC
Shannon, C. E. (1938). A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits. Electrical Engineering, 57(12), 713-723. – ve42.co/Shannon38
Boole, G. (1847). The mathematical analysis of logic. Philosophical Library. – ve42.co/Boole1847
The world’s first general purpose computer turns 75 – ve42.co/ENIAC2
Dylla, H. F., & Corneliussen, S. T. (2005). John Ambrose Fleming and the beginning of electronics. Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films, 23(4), 1244-1251. – ve42.co/Dylla2005
Stibitz, G. R. (1980). Early computers. In A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (pp. 479-483). Academic Press.
ENIAC’s Hydrogen Bomb Calculations – ve42.co/ENIAC3
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy ‘kkm’ K’Nelson, Sam Lutfi.
▀▀▀
Written by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller and Kovi Rose
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Mike Radjabov, Ivy Tello and Fabio Albertelli
Filmed by Derek Muller & Raquel Nuno
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, & Emily Zhang
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
▀▀▀
A huge thanks to everyone at NASA Glenn Research Center for having us at the SLOPE Lab, showing their work on this indestructible tire, and helping with the science and animation.
A huge thanks to everyone at Smart Tire Co for showing us around their facility, teaching us about nitinol, and letting us flatten their tires.
▀▀▀
References:
Steel Rod Footage - ve42.co/SteelRod
H. Föll. 8.4.1 - Martensite. University of Kiel, Faculty of Engineering - ve42.co/Foell
Bhattacharya, K. (1998). Theory of martensitic microstructure and the shape-memory effect - ve42.co/Bhattacharya1998
Bhattacharya, K. (2003). Microstructure of martensite: why it forms and how it gives rise to the shape-memory effect (Vol. 2). Oxford University Press. - ve42.co/MartensiteBook
Shaw, J. A. (2008). Tips and tricks for characterizing shape memory alloy wire: part 1—differential scanning calorimetry and basic phenomena. Experimental Techniques - ve42.co/Shaw2008
Buehler, W. J., Gilfrich, J. V., & Wiley, R. C. (1963). Effect of low‐temperature phase changes on the mechanical properties of alloys near composition TiNi. Journal of applied physics, 34(5), 1475-1477.
Kauffman, G. B., & Mayo, I. (1997). The story of nitinol: the serendipitous discovery of the memory metal and its applications. The chemical educator, 2, 1-21. - ve42.co/Kauffman1997
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy ‘kkm’ K’Nelson, Sam Lutfi.
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller, Katie Barnshaw, & Emily Zhang
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Mike Radjabov & Ivy Tello
Coordinated by Emily Zhang
Filmed by Derek Muller, Emily Zhang & Raquel Nuno
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, & Emily Zhang
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
▀▀▀
A huge thank you to Nevada Ready Mix for being willing to bury me in concrete, especially Elu Chavez and Mike Sherwood. nevadareadymix.com
And to Brandon Birchak of Six Foot Productions for providing the big fish bowl, safety equipment, planning and filming: sixfootcreations.com
▀▀▀
References:
Instant stone (just add water), Roots of Progress, rootsofprogress.org/instant-stone-just-add-water
rootsofprogress.org/cement-redux
Cement Chemistry and Sustainable Cementitious Materials
youtube.com/@cementchemistryandsustaina9629
Ahmad, S., Lawan, A., & Al-Osta, M. (2020). Effect of sugar dosage on setting time, microstructure and strength of Type I and Type V Portland cements. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 13, e00364. – ve42.co/Ahmad2020
Seymour, L. M., Maragh, J., Sabatini, P., Di Tommaso, M., Weaver, J. C., & Masic, A. (2023). Hot mixing: Mechanistic insights into the durability of ancient Roman concrete. Science advances, 9(1), eadd1602. -- ve42.co/Seymour2023
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi.
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Raquel Nuno, Austin Bradley and Bryson
Animated by Ivy Tello & Mike Radjabov
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman: the Bill Wurtz inspired ‘Skyscrapers are made of sea shells’
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, & Emily Zhang
▀▀▀
A huge thank you to those who helped us understand this complex field and ensure we told this story accurately - Dr. Lorenz Panny, Prof. Serge Fehr, Dr. Dustin Moody, Prof. Benne de Weger, Prof. Tanja Lange, PhD candidate Jelle Vos, Gorjan Alagic, and Jack Hidary.
A huge thanks to those who helped us with the math behind Shor’s algorithm - Prof. David Elkouss, Javier Pagan Lacambra, Marc Serra Peralta, and Daniel Bedialauneta Rodriguez.
▀▀▀
References:
Joseph, D., et al. (2022). Transitioning organizations to post-quantum cryptography. Nature, 605(7909), 237-243. - ve42.co/Joseph2022
Bernstein, D. J., & Lange, T. (2017). Post-quantum cryptography. Nature, 549(7671), 188-194. - ve42.co/Bernstein2017
An Insight, An Idea with Sundar Pichai - Quantum Computing, Wold Economic Forum via YouTube - ve42.co/QCWEFyt
Migrating to Post-Quantum Cryptography, The White House - ve42.co/PQCWhiteHouse
Kotas, W. A. (2000). A brief history of cryptography. University of Tennessee - ve42.co/Kotas2000
Hellman, M. (1976). New directions in cryptography. IEEE transactions on Information Theory, 22(6), 644-654. - ve42.co/Hellman1976
Rivest, R. L., Shamir, A., & Adleman, L. (1978). A method for obtaining digital signatures and public-key cryptosystems. Communications of the ACM, 21(2), 120-126. - ve42.co/Rivest1978
Kak, A. (2023). Lecture 12: Public-Key Cryptography and the RSA Algorithm - ve42.co/Kak2023
Calderbank, M. (2007). The RSA Cryptosystem: History, Algorithm, Primes. University of Chicago. - ve42.co/Calderbank2007
Cryptographic Key Length Recommendation, Keylength - ve42.co/KeyLength
Coppersmith, D. (2002). An approximate Fourier transform useful in quantum factoring. arXiv preprint quant-ph/0201067. - ve42.co/Coppersmith2002
Quantum Fourier Transform, Qiskit - ve42.co/Qiskit
Shor, P. W. (1994, November). Algorithms for quantum computation: discrete logarithms and factoring. In Proceedings 35th annual symposium on foundations of computer science (pp. 124-134). IEEE. - ve42.co/Shor1994
Shor’s algorithm, Wikipedia - ve42.co/ShorWiki
Euler’s totient function, Wikipedia - ve42.co/EulerWiki
Asfaw, A. (2020). Shor’s Algorithm Lecture Series, Qiskit Summer School - ve42.co/ShorYT
How Quantum Computers Break Encryption, minutephysics via YouTube - ve42.co/PQCmpyt
Breaking RSA Encryption - an Update on the State-of-the-Art, QuintessenceLabs - ve42.co/QuintessenceLabs
O'Gorman, J., & Campbell, E. T. (2017). Quantum computation with realistic magic-state factories. Physical Review A, 95(3), 032338. - ve42.co/OGorman2017
Gidney, C., & Ekerå, M. (2021). How to factor 2048 bit RSA integers in 8 hours using 20 million noisy qubits. Quantum, 5, 433. - ve42.co/Gidney2021
2021 Quantum Threat Timeline Report, Global Risk Institute - ve42.co/QuantumRisk
The IBM Quantum Development Roadmap, IBM - ve42.co/IBMQC
Post-Quantum Cryptography, Computer Security Resource Center (NIST) - ve42.co/CSRCPQC
Alagic, G., et al. (2022). Status report on the third round of the NIST post-quantum cryptography standardization process. US Department of Commerce, NIST. - ve42.co/Alagic2022
Thijs, L. (2015). Lattice cryptography and lattice cryptanalysis - ve42.co/Thijs2015
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Tj Steyn, Meg Noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Elliot Miller, Jerome Barakos, M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin, Jr., Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi.
▀▀▀
Written by Casper Mebius & Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Raquel Nuno
Animated by Ivy Tello & Mike Radjabov
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, & Emily Zhang
Trends insights for the past year are based on Google Trends data from 2/10/2022 - 2/10/2023, U.S.
▀▀▀
Thanks to the entire NHMFL team - especially Tim, Stephen, Caroline, Kristin, Sam, Lance, and everyone who helped with the demos - for the great visit.
The NHMFL is funded by the National Science Foundation and the State of Florida.
Special thanks to Henry from Minutephysics for lending his magnet animations from our magnet collaboration: youtu.be/hFAOXdXZ5TM
▀▀▀
References:
Liu, Y., Zhu, D. M., Strayer, D. M., & Israelsson, U. E. (2010). Magnetic levitation of large water droplets and mice. Advances in Space Research, 45(1), 208-213.
Simon, M. D., & Geim, A. K. (2000). Diamagnetic levitation: Flying frogs and floating magnets. Journal of applied physics, 87(9), 6200-6204.
Berry, M. V., & Geim, A. K. (1997). Of flying frogs and levitrons. European Journal of Physics, 18(4), 307.
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Tj Steyn, Meg Noah, Bernard McGee, James Sanger, Elliot Miller, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller
Edited and Motion Graphics by Trenton Oliver
Coordinated by Emily Zhang and Derek Muller
Filmed by Derek Muller, Trenton Oliver, Raquel Nuno and Emily Zhang
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 & Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
▀▀▀
Many thanks to Dr. Mike Titelbaum and Dr. Adam Elga for their insights into the problem.
▀▀▀
References:
Elga, A. (2000). Self-locating belief and the Sleeping Beauty problem. Analysis, 60(2), 143-147. - ve42.co/Elga2000
Lewis, D. (2001). Sleeping beauty: reply to Elga. Analysis, 61(3), 171-176. - ve42.co/Lewis2001
Winkler, P. (2017). The sleeping beauty controversy. The American Mathematical Monthly, 124(7), 579-587. - ve42.co/Winkler2017
Titelbaum, M. G. (2013). Ten reasons to care about the Sleeping Beauty problem. Philosophy Compass, 8(11), 1003-1017. - ve42.co/Titelbaum2013
Mutalik, P. (2016). Solution: ‘Sleeping Beauty’s Dilemma’, Quanta Magazine - ve42.co/MutalikQ2016
Rec.Puzzles - Some “Sleeping Beauty” Postings - ve42.co/SBRecPuzzles
The Sleeping Beauty Paradox, Statistics SE - ve42.co/SBPSSE
The Sleeping Beauty Problem, Reddit - ve42.co/SBPReddit
Sleeping Beauty paradox explained, GameFAQs - ve42.co/SBPGameFAQ
The Sleeping Beauty Problem, Physics Forums - ve42.co/SBPPhysicsForums
▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Tj Steyn, Meg Noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos, M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin, Jr., Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi.
▀▀▀
Written by Emily Zhang, Derek Muller, Tamar Lichter Blanks
Edited by Fabio Albertelli
Animation by Ivy Tello, Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang
▀▀▀
Thanks to Dr. Mark Cutkosky, Tony Chen, Amar Hajj-Ahmad, and the rest of the Biomimetics and Dexterous Manipulation Lab at Stanford University for showing us the power of gecko adhesives.
▀▀▀
References:
Russell, A. P., Stark, A. Y., & Higham, T. E. (2019). The integrative biology of gecko adhesion: historical review, current understanding, and grand challenges. Integrative and comparative biology, 59(1), 101-116. – ve42.co/Russell2019
Hajj-Ahmad, A., Suresh, S. A., and Cutkosky, M. R. (June 6, 2021). "Cutting to the Point: Directly Machined Metal Molds for Directional Gecko-Inspired Adhesives." ASME. J. Micro Nano-Manuf. – ve42.co/Hajj-Ahmad2021
Kerst, Capella F., "Gecko inspired adhesives : permanent practical manufacturing, new materials, and applications," PhD Thesis, Stanford University, December 2020. – ve42.co/Kerst2020
Suresh, S.A. "Engineering Gecko-Inspired Adhesives." Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 2020. [Online]. – ve42.co/Suresh2020
Suresh, S.A., Kerst, C.F., Cutkosky, M.R., Hawkes, E.W. "Spatially variant microstructured adhesive with one-way friction." Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 2019. – ve42.co/Suresh2019
Glick, P., Suresh, S.A., Ruffatto III, D., Cutkosky, M.R., Tolley, M.T., and Parness, A. "A soft robotic gripper with gecko-inspired adhesive." Robotics and Automation Letters. 2018. – ve42.co/Glick2018
Christensen, D.L., Hawkes, E.W., Suresh, S.A., Ladenheim, K. and Cutkosky, M.R., "µTugs: Enabling Microrobots to Deliver Macro Forces with Controllable Adhesives," IEEE/ICRA 2015 (preprint). – ve42.co/Christensen2015
Hawkes, E. W., "Applying Dry Adhesives to the Real World," Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 2015. – ve42.co/Hawkes2015
▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Meg Noah, Bernard McGee, James Sanger, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller & Petr Lebedev
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Ivy Tello
Filmed by Derek Muller & Albert Leung
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 & Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Exec. Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
▀▀▀
Thanks to Rich Press and NIST for the great visit.
Thanks to Matt Staymates for taking us around his lab and showing us the fascinating research being done with flow visualization.
You can check out all the cool work going on at NIST here: nist.gov
▀▀▀
Check out these Lutron products:
homedepot.com/p/Lutron-Caseta-Wireless-Smart-Lighting-Dimmer-Switch-and-Remote-Kit-for-Wall-and-Ceiling-Lights-White-P-PKG1W-WH-R/206754146
homedepot.com/p/Lutron-Caseta-Wireless-Smart-Lighting-Dimmer-Switch-Starter-Kit-P-BDG-PKG1W/205582770
homedepot.com/p/Lutron-Caseta-Wireless-Smart-Lighting-Dimmer-Switch-2-Count-Starter-Kit-P-BDG-PKG2W-HD/301783649
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homedepot.com/s/P-BDG-PKG2WS-WH?NCNI-5
homedepot.com/p/Lutron-Caseta-Wireless-Pico-Wall-Mounting-Kit-White-PJ2-WALL-WH-L01/204718234
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▀▀▀
References:
Staymates, M.E., (2020). My Stay-at-Home Lab Shows How Face Coverings Can Slow the Spread of Disease. NIST. – ve42.co/FaceMaskNIST
Staymates, M. E., et al. (2016). Biomimetic sniffing improves the detection performance of a 3D printed nose of a dog and a commercial trace vapor detector. Scientific reports, 6(1), 1-10. – ve42.co/Staymates2016
NIST. (2022). Surface and Trace Chemical Analysis Group. – ve42.co/NISTgroup
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Bernard McGee, James Sanger, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller and Emily Zhang
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Ivy Tello
Filmed by Derek Muller, Raquel Nuno, Trenton Oliver, and Emily Zhang
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 & Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
Massive thanks to Archisand for building such a beautiful sandcastle. youtube.com/@GregLeBon
Huge thanks to John and Angie Miller for helping us with securing the shooting location and going above and beyond to make this shoot happen – http://highdesertlocations.com
Thanks to Inland Empire Film Services and the San Bernardino County Film Office for portions of the video shot in the County of San Bernardino.
Massive thanks to Dr David Wright for the interview and providing invaluable guidance during the research for this video.
Here’s a great video about space-based missile defense – ucsusa.org/resources/space-based-missile-defense-not-good-idea
Massive thanks to Adam Savage for being part of this video.
Additional photos from NASA and ESA.
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References:
USAF. (2003). The US Air Force transformation flight plan.
Preston, R., Johnson, D. J., Edwards, S. J., Miller, M. D., & Shipbaugh, C. (2002). Space weapons earth wars. Rand Corporation.
Wright, D., Grego, L., & Gronlund, L. (2005). The physics of space security. A Reference Manual, Cambridge.
DeBlois, B. M., Garwin, R. L., Kemp, R. S., & Marwell, J. C. (2004). Space weapons: crossing the US Rubicon. International Security, 50-84.
Baucom, D. R. (2017). The Rise and Fall of Brilliant Pebbles 1. In United States Military History 1865 to the Present Day (pp. 329-376). Routledge.
Hitchens, T., & Samson, V. (2004). Space-based interceptors: still not a good idea. Georgetown journal of international affairs, 21-29.
National Research Council. (2012). Making sense of ballistic missile defense: An assessment of concepts and systems for US boost-phase missile defense in comparison to other alternatives. National Academies Press.
Borger, J. (2005). Bush likely to back weapons in space. The Guardian, 19.
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Special thanks to: Bernard McGee, James Sanger, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi
▀▀▀
Written by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller, and Emily Zhang
Filmed by Trenton Oliver, Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang, Raquel Nuno, and Eddie Lopez
Animation by Mike Radjabov, Fabio Albertelli, and Jonny Hyman
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Slow Motion Camera: Shawn Sanders and Anthony Corrales
Sandcastle Timelapse by Greg LeBon and Archisand
Phantom rental from Panny Hire LA
Helicopter Pilots: Rick Shuster and Cliff Fleming
Helicopter Safety Officer: Ryan Hosking
FPV Drone Pilots: Sammie Saing and Josh Ewalt
Production Assistants: Roman Bacvic and Eddie Lopez
Intern: Katie Barnshaw
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 and Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
▀▀▀
Thanks to Rich Press and NIST for the great visit.
Thanks to Dr. Gordon Shaw for showing us around his lab and teaching us about measuring tiny forces.
You can check out all the cool work going on at NIST here: nist.gov
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References:
Lee, J. (2016). Measuring Tiny Forces With Light. NIST. – ve42.co/Lee2016
Melcher, J., Stirling, J., Guzman, F., Pratt, J. & Shaw, G. (2014). A self-calibrating optomechanical force sensor with femtonewton resolution. Applied Physics Letters. – ve42.co/Melcher2014
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Bernard McGee, James Sanger, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Ivy Tello
Filmed by Derek Muller, Trenton Oliver, and Emily Zhang
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 & Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
▀▀▀
Thanks to Kelley Stirling and the Naval Surface Warfare Center, Carderock Division for the visit.
Thanks to Miguel Quintero and Capt. Todd E. Hutchison for talking to us about the important work going on in the Maneuvering and Seakeeping Basin.
Thanks to Dr. Georgy Manucharyan at the University of Washington for his help in understanding ocean waves.
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References:
Webb, P. (2017). Introduction to Oceanography. Chapter 10: Waves. Online OER textbook. – ve42.co/Webb2017
Stewart, R. (2008). Introduction to Physical Oceanography. – ve42.co/Stewart2008
van den Bremer, T. S. & Breivik, Ø. (2018). Stokes drift. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A. – ve42.co/Bremer2017
Monismith, S. (2020). Stokes drift: Theory and experiments. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 884, F1. – ve42.co/Monismith2020
Young, I. R. (1999). Wind Generated Ocean Waves. Elsevier. p. 83. – ve42.co/Young1999
Wright, P. Island Physics. 4.2 Formation of Waves – ve42.co/IslandPhysics
American Bureau of Shipping. (2016). Guidance Notes on Selecting Design Wave by Long Term Stochastic Method. – ve42.co/ABS2016
James, S. & Stull, R. (2019). Wave Characteristics. UBC ATSC 113 - Weather for Sailing, Flying & Snow Sports. – ve42.co/James2019
Garrison, T. (2009). Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science (7th ed). – ve42.co/Garrison2009
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
James Sanger, Louis Lebbos, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller & Emily Zhang
Edited by Fabio Albertelli
Animation by Ivy Tello & Mike Radjabov
Filmed by Derek Muller & Emily Zhang
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 & Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
▀▀▀
Thanks to Rich Press and NIST for the great visit.
Thanks to Dr. Steve Choquette, Dr. Ben Place, and Dr. Johanna Camara for teaching us about the world of Standard Reference Materials.
You can check out all the cool work going on at NIST here: nist.gov
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References:
NIST (2022). Standard Reference Materials. – ve42.co/WhyStandard2022
Montgomery, R. & Bercik, I. (2022). NIST Standard Reference Materials 2022 Catalog. – ve42.co/SRMCatalog
Vincent, J. (2022). Made to measure: why we can’t stop quantifying our lives. The Guardian –
ve42.co/Vincent2022
Proffitt, A. (2022). NIST Develops Monkeypox Reference Materials, Sees Growing Role in Outbreak Response. Diagnostics World. – ve42.co/Proffitt2022
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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
James Sanger, Louis Lebbos, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller & Emily Zhang
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Ivy Tello & Mike Radjabov
Filmed by Derek Muller, Trenton Oliver, and Emily Zhang
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 & Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
▀▀▀
A massive thanks to Prof. Hans-Thomas Janka for helping us with the physics of supernovae and GRBs. A massive thanks to Prof. Brian Thomas for all of his help with the terrestrial effects of supernovae and GRBs. This video would not have been possible without them. Also thanks to Dr. Luke Barnes for his initial help with the literature search.
Hydrogen bomb vs Supernova fact was taken from this great article by xkcd/Randall Munroe – what-if.xkcd.com/73 (based on the calculation by Andrew Karam, 2002)
Cosmic bubble footage from
https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/news/1000-light-year-wide-bubble-surrounding-earth-source-all-nearby-young-stars
Neutrino driven SN explosion simulations from iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2041-8205/808/2/L42
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References:
Melott, A. et al. (2019). Hypothesis: Muon radiation dose and marine megafaunal extinction at the End-Pliocene supernova. Astrobiology, 19(6), 825-830. – ve42.co/Melott1
Thomas, B. C. et al. (2016). Terrestrial effects of nearby supernovae in the early Pleistocene. The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 826(1), L3 – ve42.co/Thomas1
Melott, A. L., & Thomas, B. C. (2019). From cosmic explosions to terrestrial fires?. The Journal of Geology, 127(4), 475-481. – ve42.co/Melott2
Fields, B. et al. (2019). Near-Earth supernova explosions: Evidence, implications, and opportunities. arXiv preprint arXiv:1903.04589. – ve42.co/Fields1
Thomas, B. C., Atri, D., & Melott, A. L. (2021). Gamma-ray bursts: not so much deadlier than we thought. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 500(2), 1970-1973. – ve42.co/Thomas2
Melott, A. et al. (2004). Did a gamma-ray burst initiate the late Ordovician mass extinction?. International Journal of Astrobiology, 3(1), 55-61. – ve42.co/Melott3
Firestone, R. B. (2014). Observation of 23 supernovae that exploded less than 300 pc from Earth during the past 300 kyr. The Astrophysical Journal, 789(1), 29. – ve42.co/firestone1
Janka, H. T. (2017). Neutrino emission from supernovae. arXiv preprint arXiv:1702.08713. – ve42.co/Janka1
Janka, H. T., & Hillebrandt, W. (1989). Neutrino emission from type II supernovae-an analysis of the spectra. Astronomy and astrophysics, 224, 49-56. – ve42.co/Janka2
Janka, H. T. (2017). Neutrino-driven explosions. arXiv preprint arXiv:1702.08825. – ve42.co/Janka3
Karam, P. A. (2002). Gamma and neutrino radiation dose from gamma ray bursts and nearby supernovae. Health physics, 82(4), 491-499. – ve42.co/Karam1
Melott, A. L., Thomas, et al.. (2017). A supernova at 50 pc: effects on the Earth's atmosphere and biota. The Astrophysical Journal, 840(2), 105. – ve42.co/Melott4
Ludwig, P., et al. (2016). Time-resolved 2-million-year-old supernova activity discovered in Earth’s microfossil record. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(33), 9232-9237. – ve42.co/Ludwig1
Gritschneder, et al. (2011). The supernova triggered formation and enrichment of our solar system. The Astrophysical Journal, 745(1), 22. – ve42.co/Gritschneder1
Motizuki, Y., Takahashi, et al. (2009). An Antarctic ice core recording both supernovae and solar cycles. arXiv preprint arXiv:0902.3446. – ve42.co/Motizuki
Zucker, C. et al. (2022). Star formation near the Sun is driven by expansion of the Local Bubble. Nature, 601(7893), 334-337. – ve42.co/Zucker1
Hirata, K. et al.(1987). Observation of a neutrino burst from the supernova SN1987A. – ve42.co/Hirata1
Hayes, L. A., & Gallagher, P. T. (2022). A Significant Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance Associated with Gamma-Ray Burst GRB 221009A. Research Notes of the AAS, 6(10), 222.
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Special thanks to our Patron supporters:
James Sanger, Louis Lebbos, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi
▀▀▀
Written by Petr Lebedev & Derek Muller
Edited by Fabio Albertelli
Animation by Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, Alex Drakoulis, Ivy Tello, Mike Radjabov, and Charlie Davies
Filmed by Derek Muller
Additional Research by Kovi Rose & Katie Barnshaw
Video/photos supplied by NASA, ESA, Pond5, and Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
A huge thank you to Dr. Richard Garwin for taking the time to speak with us.
Thanks to Dr. Steve Brunton of the University of Washington for his help with understanding the Fast Fourier Transform.
Thanks to Dr. Cliff Thurber of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Dr. Paul Richards of Columbia University, and Dr. Steven Gibbons of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute for their expertise.
Thanks to Grant Sanderson of 3Blue1Brown for his helpful feedback on the script. His great video on the Fourier Transform is here - youtu.be/spUNpyF58BY
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References:
Kristensen, H.M., Korda, M. (2022). Status of World Nuclear Forces. Federation of American Scientists (FAS). ve42.co/Stockpile2022
Barth, K. H. (1998). Science and politics in early nuclear test ban negotiations. Physics Today, 51(3), 34-39. - ve42.co/Barth1998
Schmalberger, T. (1991). In pursuit of a nuclear test ban treaty - ve42.co/Schmalberger1991
Bowers, D., & Selby, N. D. (2009). Forensic seismology and the comprehensive nuclear-test-ban treaty. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 37, 209-236 - ve42.co/Bowers2009
Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS). (2022). How Often Do Earthquakes Occur? ve42.co/IRIS2022
Kimball, D. (2022). The Nuclear Testing Tally. Arms Control Association. ve42.co/TestTally2022
Kværna, T., & Ringdal, F. (2013). Detection capability of the seismic network of the International Monitoring System for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 103(2A), 759-772 - ve42.co/Kvrna2013
Sykes, L. R., & Evernden, J. F. (1982). The verification of a comprehensive nuclear test ban. Scientific American, 247(4), 47-55 - ve42.co/Sykes1982
Peterson, J., & Hutt, C. R. (2014). World-wide standardized seismograph network: a data users guide (p. 82). US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey. - ve42.co/Peterson2014
Richards, P. G., & Kim, W. Y. (2009). Monitoring for nuclear explosions. Scientific American, 300(3), 70-77 - ve42.co/Richards2009
Jacobsen, L. L., Fedorova, I., & Lajus, J. (2021). The seismograph as a diplomatic object: The Soviet–American exchange of instruments, 1958–1964. Centaurus, 63(2), 277-295 - ve42.co/Jacobsen2021
Schwartz S. I. (1998). The Hidden Costs Of Our Nuclear Arsenal: Overview Of Project Findings. The Brookings Institution - ve42.co/Schwartz1998
Ricón, J.L. (2016). The Soviet Union: Military Spending. Nintil - ve42.co/Nintil2016
Heideman, M. T., Johnson, D. H., & Burrus, C. S. (1985). Gauss and the history of the fast Fourier transform. Archive for history of exact sciences, 265-277 - ve42.co/Heideman1985
Ford, D. (2004). Richard Garwin - Session IV. American Institute of Physics (AIP). - ve42.co/Ford2004
Aaserud, F. (1986). Richard Garwin - Session I. American Institute of Physics (AIP). - ve42.co/Aaserud1986
Goldstein, A. (1997). James W. Cooley, an oral history. IEEE History Center, Piscataway, NJ, USA - ve42.co/Goldstein1997
Cooley, J., Garwin, R., Rader, C., Bogert, B., & Stockham, T. (1969). The 1968 Arden House workshop on fast Fourier transform processing. IEEE Transactions on Audio and Electroacoustics, 17(2), 66-76 - ve42.co/Cooley1969
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Special thanks to Patreon supporters:
Louis Lebbos, Elliot MIller, RayJ Johnson, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller & Felicity Nelson
Filmed by Derek Muller & Raquel Nuno
Animation by Ivy Tello, Jakub Misiek, Alex Drakoulis, and Fabio Albertelli
Edited by Albert Leung & Derek Muller
Research Assistant: Katie Barnshaw
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 and Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
A massive thanks to Adam Savage and the whole Tested Crew – especially Kristen Lomasney, Ryan Kiser, and Joey Fameli. Thank you so much for coming out to the desert with us, and for inviting us to your cave! Check out the video we made with them on their channel – youtu.be/h_zytOcMwys
Another huge thanks to iFly Ontario for letting us shoot in your amazing windtunnel. Special thanks to Diana Rios, Treasa Telle, Michelle Brumley for having us and Anthony Jones, Torrell Henderson and Nate Roth for being great instructors. iFly run STEM education trips, where you can experience terminal velocity first hand – iflyworld.com/programs/stem-field-trips
Thanks to Inland Empire Film Services and the San Bernardino County Film Office for portions of the video shot in the County of San Bernardino.
The raindrop video is from Alistair McClymont’s gorgeous artwork “Raindrop” – alistairmcclymont.com/artwork/raindrop
Video of the raindrop breaking apart is from the coolest paper i’ve read in a while – Villermaux, E., & Bossa, B. (2009). Single-drop fragmentation determines size distribution of raindrops. Nature physics, 5(9), 697-702. – ve42.co/Villermaux
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References:
Altair. (2019). Digital Debunking: Could a Penny Dropped Off the Top of the Empire State Building Actually Kill You? - ve42.co/Altair2019
Braeunig, R.A. Atmosphere Properties. - ve42.co/AtmosProp
The Guardian. (2014). Brutal winter weather brings new challenge: ice falling from skyscrapers - ve42.co/WTCicicle
NASA. (2018). The Apollo 15 Hammer-Feather Drop - ve42.co/NASAmoondrop
Red Bull Stratos - ve42.co/RBStratos
Quealy, K., Sanger-KatzIn, M. (2015). In Other Countries, You’re as Likely to Be Killed by a Falling Object as by a Gun. New York Times. - ve42.co/NYTFallingObject
National Safety Council. (2022). Struck by Objects. - ve42.co/NSCStruck
Williams, A. (2019). What are your chances of being killed by hail in the US? - ve42.co/Williams2019
NewScientist. (2021). Can bullets fired upwards cause injuries when they return to earth? - ve42.co/CelebratoryGunFire
Chambers, J. (2020). Meet the Flechette – the Deadliest Weapon of World War I? - ve42.co/Flechette
Wikipedia. Lazy Dog (bomb). - ve42.co/LazyDog
Gläser, N., Kneubuehl, B. P., Zuber, S., Axmann, S., Ketterer, T., Thali, M. J., & Bolliger, S. A. (2011). Biomechanical examination of blunt trauma due to baseball bat blows to the head. Journal of Forensic Biomechanics, 2 - ve42.co/Glaser2011
Yoganandan, N., Pintar, F. A., SANCES JR, A. N. T. H. O. N. Y., Walsh, P. R., Ewing, C. L., Thomas, D. J., & Snyder, R. G. (1995). Biomechanics of skull fracture. Journal of neurotrauma, 12(4), 659-668.
New York Times. (2014). Falling Tape Measure Kills Man at Jersey City Construction Site - The New York Times - ve42.co/NYTTapeMeasure
IMDb. (2006). "MythBusters" Bullets Fired Up (TV Episode). - ve42.co/MBgunfire
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Special thanks to: Elliot MIller, Louis Lebbos, RayJ Johnson, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Nathan Lanza, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Robert Blum, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal
▀▀▀
Written by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller, and Emily Zhang
Filmed by Derek Muller, Trenton Oliver, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang, Raquel Nuno and Eddie Lopez
Animation by Ivy Tello, Mike Radjabov, Fabio Albertelli, and Jakub Misiek
Edited by Trenton Oliver and Derek Muller
FPV Drone Pilots: Sammie Saing and Josh Ewalt
Slow Motion Camera: Shawn Sanders and Anthony Corrales
Phantom slow motion camera & lenses provided by Panny Hire L.A
Helicopter Pilots: Rick Shuster and Cliff Fleming
Helicopter Safety Officer: Ryan Hosking
Production Assistants: Roman Bacvic and Eddie Lopez
Research Assistant: Katie Barnshaw
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 and Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
Huge thanks to Dr. Elliot Hawkes and the rest of the group - Charles Xiao, Chris Keeley, Dr. Morgan Pope, and Dr. Günter Niemeyer - for having us at UCSB and showing us their high-flying jumper. This work was partially supported by an Early Career Faculty Grant from NASA’s Space Technology Research Grants Program.
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References:
Hawkes, E.W., Xiao, C., Peloquin, R., Keeley, C., Begley, M.R., Pope, M.T., & Niemeyer, G. (2022). Engineered jumpers overcome biological limits via work multiplication. Nature, 604, 657-661. – rdcu.be/cMePc
ve42.co/Hawkes2022
Fernandez, S. (2022). Hitting New Heights. The Current, UC Santa Barbara. – ve42.co/Fernandez2022
Bushwick, S. (2022). Record-Breaking Jumping Robot Can Leap a 10-Story Building. Engineering, Scientific American. – ve42.co/Bushwick2022
Mack, E. (2022). This Robot Can Leap Nine Stories in One Jump, Will Go Even Higher on Moon. Science, CNET. – ve42.co/Mack2022
Ashby, M. (2020). Materials Selection in Mechanical Design (4th edition). Elsevier.
Jumping robot leaps to record heights. Nature Video - ve42.co/NatureJumper
MultiMo-Bat Robot - ve42.co/MultiMoBat
Galago Jump - ve42.co/GalagoJump
Slingshot Spider - ve42.co/SlingshotSpider
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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: RayJ Johnson, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Nathan Lanza, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Robert Blum, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal
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Written by Emily Zhang and Derek Muller
Filmed by Derek Muller and Trenton Oliver
Animation by Mike Radjabov and Ivy Tello
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 and Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
Thanks to chess24.com and Chessable for the clip of Magnus.
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Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. (1973). Perception in chess. Cognitive psychology, 4(1), 55-81. – ve42.co/chess1
Calderwood, R., Klein, G. A., & Crandall, B. W. (1988). Time pressure, skill, and move quality in chess. The American Journal of Psychology, 481-493. – ve42.co/chess2
Hogarth, R. M., Lejarraga, T., & Soyer, E. (2015). The two settings of kind and wicked learning environments. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(5), 379-385. – ve42.co/Hogarth
Ægisdóttir, S., White, M. J., Spengler, P. M., Maugherman, A. S., Anderson, L. A., Cook, R. S., ... & Rush, J. D. (2006). The meta-analysis of clinical judgment project: Fifty-six years of accumulated research on clinical versus statistical prediction. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(3), 341-382. – ve42.co/anderson1
Ericsson, K. A. (2015). Acquisition and maintenance of medical expertise: a perspective from the expert-performance approach with deliberate practice. Academic Medicine, 90(11), 1471-1486. – ve42.co/anderson2
Goldberg, S. B., Rousmaniere, T., Miller, S. D., Whipple, J., Nielsen, S. L., Hoyt, W. T., & Wampold, B. E. (2016). Do psychotherapists improve with time and experience? A longitudinal analysis of outcomes in a clinical setting. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(1), 1. – ve42.co/goldberg1
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363. – ve42.co/anderson3
Egan, D. E., & Schwartz, B. J. (1979). Chunking in recall of symbolic drawings. Memory & Cognition, 7(2), 149-158. – ve42.co/chunking1
Tetlock, P. E. (2017). Expert political judgment. In Expert Political Judgment. Princeton University Press. – ve42.co/Tetlock
Melton, R. S. (1952). A comparison of clinical and actuarial methods of prediction with an assessment of the relative accuracy of different clinicians. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Minnesota.
Meehl, E. P. (1954). Clinical versus Statistical Prediction: A Theoretical Analysis and a Review of the Evidence. University of Minnesota Press. – ve42.co/Meehl1954
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. – ve42.co/Kahneman
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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: RayJ Johnson, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, Julian Lee, Inconcision, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Timothy O’Brien, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller and Petr Lebedev
Animation by Ivy Tello and Fabio Albertelli
Filmed by Derek Muller and Raquel Nuno
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound (ve42.co/music)
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
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A huge thanks to Dan Charles for writing a fantastic biography of Fritz Haber, for taking the time to talk to us about it, and providing valuable feedback. This video would not be what it is without his contributions. http://site.danielcharles.us ve42.co/Charles
Thanks to Tom de Prinse from Explosions and Fire for helping us with the chemistry of explosives. If you like explosions and/or fire, you will love his channel. youtube.com/c/ExplosionsFire2
Thanks to Michael Kuiper of CSIRO for the animation of the composition of air - youtube.com/watch?v=j9JvX58aRfg
Special thanks to Sonya Pemberton, Karl Kruszelnicki, Mary Dobbie, Olivia McRae, and the patreon supporters for giving us feedback on the earlier version of this video.
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References:
The primary reference used is Vaclav Smil’s excellent book, Enriching The Earth –
Smil, V. (2004). Enriching the earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the transformation of world food production. MIT press. – ve42.co/Smil
Mastermind: The Rise and Fall of Fritz Haber, the Nobel Laureate Who Launched the Age of Chemical Warfare, by Dan Charles – ve42.co/Charles
Stoltzenberg, D. (2004). Fritz Haber: Chemist, Nobel Laureate, German, Jew. Chemical Heritage Foundation. – ve42.co/Stoltzenberg
Postgate, J. R. (1982). The fundamentals of nitrogen fixation. CUP Archive. – ve42.co/postgate
Miles, A. G. (1992). Biological nitrogen fixation. – ve42.co/Miles
Friedrich, B., & Hoffmann, D. (2017). Clara Immerwahr: A life in the shadow of Fritz Haber. In One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences(pp. 45-67). Springer, Cham. – ve42.co/Friedrich2017
Da Silva, G. (2020). What is ammonium nitrate, the chemical that exploded in Beirut. Sci Am, 5. – ve42.co/Silva
Rodrigues, P., & Micael, J. (2021). The importance of guano birds to the Inca Empire and the first conservation measures implemented by humans. – ve42.co/rodrigues
Allison, F. E. (1957). Nitrogen and soil fertility. Soil, the, 85-94. – ve42.co/Allison
Crookes, W. (1898). Address of the President before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Bristol, 1898. Science, 8(200), 561-575. – ve42.co/Crookes
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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: RayJ Johnson, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, Julian Lee, Inconcision, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Timothy O’Brien, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal
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Written by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller, Felicity Nelson and Kovi Rose
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Jakub Mistek, Fabio Albertelli, Ivy Tello, Alex Drakoulis, Nils Ramses Kullack, and Charlie Davies
SFX by Shaun Clifford
Filmed by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller and Raquel Nuno
Photo of nitrogen deficiency in rice from ve42.co/rice
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound: ve42.co/music
Special thanks to Destin of Smarter Every Day (ve42.co/SED), Toby of Tibees (ve42.co/Tibees), and Jabril of Jabrils (ve42.co/Jabrils) for taking the time to think about this mind bending riddle.
Huge thanks to Luke West for building plots and for his help with the math.
Huge thanks to Dr. Eugene Curtin and Dr. Max Warshauer for their great article on the problem and taking the time to help us understand it: ve42.co/CurtinWarshauer
Thanks to Dr. John Baez for his help with finding alternate ways to do the calculations.
Thanks to Simon Pampena for his input and analysis.
Other 100 Prisoners Riddle videos:
minutephysics: youtube.com/watch?v=C5-I0bAuEUE
Vsauce2: youtube.com/watch?v=kOnEEeHZp94
Stand-up Maths: youtube.com/watch?v=a1DUUnhk3uE
TED-Ed: youtube.com/watch?v=vIdStMTgNl0
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References:
Original paper: Gál, A., & Miltersen, P.B. (2003). The Cell Probe Complexity of Succinct Data Structures. BRICS, Department of Computer Science, University of Aarhus. All rights reserved. – ve42.co/GalMiltersen
Winkler, P. (2006). Seven Puzzles You Think You Must Not Have Heard Correctly. – ve42.co/Winkler2006
The 100 Prisoners Problem – ve42.co/100PWiki
Golomb, S. & Gaal, P. (1998). On the Number of Permutations on n Objects with Greatest Cycle Length k. Advances in Applied Mathematics, 20(1), 98-107. – ve42.co/Golomb1998
Lamb, E. (2012). Puzzling Prisoners Presented to Promote North America's Only Museum of Math. Observations, Scientific American. – ve42.co/Lamb2012
Permutations – ve42.co/PermutationsWiki
Probability that a random permutation of n elements has a cycle of length k greater than n/2, Math SE. – ve42.co/BaezProbSE
Counting Cycle Structures in Sn, Math SE. – ve42.co/CountCyclesSE
What is the distribution of cycle lengths in derangements? In particular, expected longest cycle, Math SE. – ve42.co/JorikiSE
The Manim Community Developers. (2021). Manim - Mathematical Animation Framework (Version v0.13.1). – https://www.manim.community/
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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: RayJ Johnson, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, Julian Lee, Inconcision, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Timothy O’Brien, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal
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Written by Derek Muller and Emily Zhang
Filmed by Derek Muller and Petr Lebedev
Animation by Ivy Tello and Jesús Rascón
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound and Jonny Hyman
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
A massive thanks to the wonderful people at the ARC Centre of Excellence for Dark Matter Physics centredarkmatter.org for showing us around and being on camera – Fleur Morrison, A/Prof Phillip Urquijo, Prof Elisabetta Barberio, Madeleine Zurowski and Grace Lawrence.
Thanks to Leo Fincher-Johnson and everyone at the Stawell gold mine for having us.
Massive thanks to Prof. Geraint Lewis – Geraint has been Veritasium’s go-to expert for anything astrophysics and cosmology related. Please check out his website, and buy his books, they’re great – geraintflewis.com
Thanks to Prof. Timothy Tait for the help to make sure we got the science right.
Thanks to Ingo Berg for illustrating the effect of dark matter on the rotation of a galaxy https://beltoforion.de/en/spiral_galaxy_renderer/spiral-galaxy-renderer.html
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Galaxy cluster simulation from IllustrisTNG – tng-project.org
Venn Diagram of Dark Matter from Tim Tait – ve42.co/venn
The Bullet Cluster Image from Magellan, Hubble and Chandra telescopes – ve42.co/BC2
Bullet cluster animation from Andrew Robertson / Institute for Computational Cosmology / Durham University – ve42.co/BC3
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Bernabei, R., Belli, P., Cappella, F., Cerulli, R., Dai, C. J., d’Angelo, A., ... & Ye, Z. P. (2008). First results from DAMA/LIBRA and the combined results with DAMA/NaI. The European Physical Journal C, 56(3), 333-355. – ve42.co/DAMA2008
Zwicky, F. (1933). Die rotverschiebung von extragalaktischen nebeln. Helvetica physica acta, 6, 110-127. – ve42.co/Zwicky1
Zwicky, F. (1937). On the Masses of Nebulae and of Clusters of Nebulae. The Astrophysical Journal, 86, 217. – ve42.co/Zwicky2
Rubin, V. C., & Ford Jr, W. K. (1970). Rotation of the Andromeda nebula from a spectroscopic survey of emission regions. The Astrophysical Journal, 159, 379. – ve42.co/Rubin1
Bosma, A., & Van der Kruit, P. C. (1979). The local mass-to-light ratio in spiral galaxies. Astronomy and Astrophysics, 79, 281-286. – ve42.co/Bosma1
Milgrom, M. (1983). A modification of the Newtonian dynamics as a possible alternative to the hidden mass hypothesis. The Astrophysical Journal, 270, 365-370. – ve42.co/mond1
Sanders, R. H., & McGaugh, S. S. (2002). Modified Newtonian dynamics as an alternative to dark matter. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 40(1), 263-317. – ve42.co/Mond2
M. Markevitch; A. H. Gonzalez; D. Clowe; A. Vikhlinin; L. David; W. Forman; C. Jones; S. Murray & W. Tucker (2004). "Direct constraints on the dark matter self-interaction cross-section from the merging galaxy cluster 1E0657-56". Astrophys. J. 606 (2): 819–824. – ve42.co/BC1
Great website about the CMB – http://background.uchicago.edu/~whu/intermediate/driving2.html
Galli, S., Iocco, F., Bertone, G., & Melchiorri, A. (2009). CMB constraints on dark matter models with large annihilation cross section. Physical Review D, 80(2), 023505. – ve42.co/CMB1
Antonello, M., Barberio, E., Baroncelli, T., Benziger, J., Bignell, L. J., Bolognino, I., ... & Xu, J. (2019). The SABRE project and the SABRE Proof-of-Principle. The European Physical Journal C, 79(4), 1-8. – ve42.co/SABRE1
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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Inconcision, Kelly Snook, TTST, Ross McCawley, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal
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Written by Derek Muller and Petr Lebedev
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Ivy Tello and Mike Radjabov
Filmed by Derek Muller and Petr Lebedev
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Image
B-roll supplied by Stawell Gold Mine
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
Visit kiwico.com/veritasium30 to get 30% off your first month of any crate!
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Image of Sgr A* from EHT collaboration
Event Horizon Telescope collaboration: ve42.co/EHT
Animations from The Relativistic Astrophysics group, Institute for Theoretical Physics, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt. Massive thanks to Prof. Luciano Rezzolla, Dr Christian Fromm and Dr Alejandro Cruz-Osorio.
A huge thanks to Prof. Peter Tuthill and Dr Manisha Caleb for feedback on earlier versions of this video and helping explain VLBI.
Great video by Thatcher Chamberlin about VLBI here – youtu.be/Y8rAHTvpJbk
Animations and simulations with English text:
L. R. Weih & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
youtu.be/jvftAadCFRI
Video of stars going around Sgr A* from European Southern Observatory
eso.org/public/videos/eso1825e
Video zooming into the center of our galaxy from European Southern Observatory
youtube.com/watch?v=dXAU0gzsPOw
Video of observation of M87 courtesy of:
C. M. Fromm, Y. Mizuno & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
youtu.be/meOKmzhTcIY
Video of observation of SgrA* courtesy of
C. M. Fromm, Y. Mizuno & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
Z. Younsi (University College London)
youtu.be/VnsZj9RvhFU
Video of telescopes in the array 2017:
C. M. Fromm & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
youtu.be/Ame7fzBuFnk
Animations and simulations (no text):
L. R. Weih & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
youtu.be/XmvpKFSvB7A
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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Inconcision, Kelly Snook, TTST, Ross McCawley, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal
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Written by Derek Muller
Animation by Ivy Tello, Mike Radjabov, Maria Raykova
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Filmed by Petr Lebedev
Special thanks to:
Bruce Sherwood, Ruth Chabay, Aaron Titus, and Steve Spicklemore
matterandinteractions.org
VPython simulation: http://tinyurl.com/SurfaceCharge
Thanks to Ansys for help with the simulations: ansys.com/products/electronics/ansys-hfss
Huge thanks to Richard Abbott from Caltech for all his modeling
Electrical Engineering YouTubers:
Electroboom: youtube.com/c/Electroboom
Alpha Phoenix: youtube.com/c/AlphaPhoenixChannel
eevblog: youtube.com/c/EevblogDave
Ben Watson: youtube.com/channel/UCgZUVIEtBnnBpFWJuxl_E5g
Big Clive: youtube.com/c/Bigclive
Z Y: youtube.com/user/ZongyiYang
NYU Quantum Technology Lab
youtube.com/channel/UCk7io8SN3ZwKvkpnMCbIGsA
Dr. Ben Miles
youtube.com/channel/UCUeZBocfxALSUdOgNJB5ySA
Further analysis of the large circuit is available here: ve42.co/bigcircuit
Special thanks to Dr Geraint Lewis for bringing up this question in the first place and discussing it with us. Check out his and Dr Chris Ferrie’s new book here: ve42.co/Universe2021
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References:
A great video about the Poynting vector by the Science Asylum: youtu.be/C7tQJ42nGno
Sefton, I. M. (2002). Understanding electricity and circuits: What the text books don’t tell you. In Science Teachers’ Workshop. -- ve42.co/Sefton
Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., & Sands, M. (1965). The feynman lectures on physics; vol. Ii, chapter 27. American Journal of Physics, 33(9), 750-752. -- ve42.co/Feynman27
Hunt, B. J. (2005). The Maxwellians. Cornell University Press.
Müller, R. (2012). A semiquantitative treatment of surface charges in DC circuits. American Journal of Physics, 80(9), 782-788. -- ve42.co/Muller2012
Galili, I., & Goihbarg, E. (2005). Energy transfer in electrical circuits: A qualitative account. American journal of physics, 73(2), 141-144. -- ve42.co/Galili2004
Deno, D. W. (1976). Transmission line fields. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, 95(5), 1600-1611. -- ve42.co/Deno76
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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Inconcision, Kelly Snook, TTST, Ross McCawley, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller
Edited by Derek Muller
Filmed by Trenton Oliver and Petr Lebedev
Animation by Mike Radjabov and Ivy Tello
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound and Jonny Hyman
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
Massive thanks to Prof. Francois Tissot for suggesting we make a video on the topic of isotope geochemistry. Huge thanks to Prof. Bruce Lanphear for consulting with us on lead and cardiovascular diseases. Thanks to the Caltech Archives for the audio of Patterson’s interview. Thanks to Vincent Mai for lending us your Snatoms kit. Thanks to Rayner Moss for the help with the fire-piston.
Patterson’s 1995 interview audio courtesy of the Archives, California Institute of Technology.
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Other great resources you should check out:
Bill Bryson has a chapter in his fantastic “A Short History of Nearly Everything”
Radiolab have a wonderful podcast: https://www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts/...
Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey has a wonderful episode – S1E7 which does a great job of telling the story of Clair Patterson
A fantastic Mental floss article – https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/9...
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References:
Much of the lead-crime hypothesis data is from Rick Nevin’s work – ricknevin.com
WHO factsheet on lead poisoning – https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sh...
WHO press release about the end of leaded gasoline https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/08/...
UNICEF report – ve42.co/UNICEF
Needleman, H. (2004). Lead poisoning. Annu. Rev. Med., 55, 209-222. ve42.co/Needleman1
Needleman, H. L. (1991). Human lead exposure. CRC Press. ve42.co/Needleman2
Needleman, H. L. et al. (1979). Deficits in psychologic and classroom performance of children with elevated dentine lead levels. New England journal of medicine, 300(13), 689-695. – ve42.co/Needleman3
Needleman, H. L. et al. (1996). Bone lead levels and delinquent behavior. Jama, 275(5), 363-369. ve42.co/Needleman4
Kovarik, W. J. (1993). The ethyl controversy: the news media and the public health debate over leaded gasoline, 1924-1926 ve42.co/Kovarik2
Edelmann, F. T. (2016). The life and legacy of Thomas Midgley Jr. In Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania ve42.co/Edelmann
More, A. F. et al. (2017). Next‐generation ice core technology reveals true minimum natural levels of lead (Pb) in the atmosphere: Insights from the Black Death. GeoHealth, 1(4), 211-219. ve42.co/More1
McFarland, M. J., et al. (2022). PNAS 119(11), e2118631119. ve42.co/McFarland
Kovarik, W. (2005). Ethyl-leaded gasoline. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, 11(4), 384-397. ve42.co/Kovarik3
Nevin, R. (2007). Understanding international crime trends: the legacy of preschool lead exposure. Environmental research, 104(3), 315-336. – ve42.co/Nevin2007
Ericson, J. E., et al. (1979). Skeletal concentrations of lead in ancient Peruvians. New England Journal of Medicine, 300(17), 946-951. – ve42.co/Ericson1
Patterson, Claire. The Isotopic Composition of Trace Quantities of Lead and Calcium ve42.co/Patterson1
Boutron, C. F., & Patterson, C. C. (1986). Lead concentration changes in Antarctic ice during the Wisconsin/Holocene transition. Nature, 323(6085), 222-225. – ve42.co/Boulton1
Patterson, C. (1956). Age of meteorites and the earth. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 10(4), 230-237. – ve42.co/Patterson2
Lanphear, B. P. et al (2018). Low-level lead exposure and mortality in US adults: a population-based cohort study. The Lancet Public Health, 3(4), e177-e184. – ve42.co/Lanphear1
Schaule, B. K., & Patterson, C. C. (1981). Lead concentrations in the northeast Pacific: evidence for global anthropogenic perturbations. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 54(1), 97-116. – ve42.co/Schaule1
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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Inconcision, Kelly Snook, TTST, Ross McCawley, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Chris Stewart, and Katie Barnshaw
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Petr Lebedev
Animation by Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, Ivy Tello, Mike Radjabov, and Caleb Worcester
SFX by Shaun Clifford
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
Huge thanks to the Australian Reptile Park for having us over to film – special thanks to Zac Bower for milking all of these snakes for us and Caitlin Vine for organizing the shoot. Absolute legends. https://www.reptilepark.com.au
Huge thanks to Dr Timothy Jackson from the Australian Venom Research Unit for answering our questions, and fact checking the script. This video would not have been the same without you.
Thanks to Seqirus Australia for providing B-roll footage of the horses and the antivenom production.
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References:
Calmette, A. (1896). Le venin des serpents: Physiologie de l'envenimation, traitement des morsures venimeuses par le sérum des animaux vaccinés. Paris: Société d'éditions scientifiques.
Broad, A. J., Sutherland, S. K., & Coulter, A. R. (1979). The lethality in mice of dangerous Australian and other snake venom. Toxicon, 17(6), 661-664. – ve42.co/Broad79
WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization. (2016). WHO guidelines for the production, control and regulation of snake antivenom immunoglobulins. Geneve, Switzerland. – ve42.co/WHO2016
Calmette, A. (1896). The treatment of animals poisoned with snake venom by the injection of antivenomous serum. British medical journal, 2(1859), 399. – ve42.co/Calmette1896
Hawgood, B. J. (1999). Doctor Albert Calmette 1863–1933: founder of antivenomous serotherapy and of antituberculous BCG vaccination. Toxicon, 37(9), 1241-1258. – ve42.co/Hawgood99
Pucca, M. B., Cerni, F. A., Janke, R., Bermúdez-Méndez, E., Ledsgaard, L., Barbosa, J. E., & Laustsen, A. H. (2019). History of envenoming therapy and current perspectives. Frontiers in immunology, 1598. – ve42.co/Pucca19
Kang, T. S., Georgieva, D., Genov, N., Murakami, M. T., Sinha, M., Kumar, R. P., ... & Kini, R. M. (2011). Enzymatic toxins from snake venom: structural characterization and mechanism of catalysis. The FEBS journal, 278(23), 4544-4576. – ve42.co/Kang2011
Hawgood, B. J. (2007). Albert Calmette (1863–1933) and Camille Guerin (1872–1961): the C and G of BCG vaccine. Journal of medical biography, 15(3), 139-146. – ve42.co/Hawgood2007
Vonk, F. J., Admiraal, J. F., Jackson, K., Reshef, R., de Bakker, M. A., Vanderschoot, K., ... & Richardson, M. K. (2008). Evolutionary origin and development of snake fangs. Nature, 454(7204), 630-633. – ve42.co/vonk2008
Bochner, R. (2016). Paths to the discovery of antivenom serotherapy in France. Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases, 22. – ve42.co/Bochner2016
Young, B. A., Herzog, F., Friedel, P., Rammensee, S., Bausch, A., & van Hemmen, J. L. (2011). Tears of venom: hydrodynamics of reptilian envenomation. Physical review letters, 106(19), 198103. – ve42.co/Young2011
Madras Medical Journal, Volume Second, July-December 1870. Page 355
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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Inconcision, Kelly Snook, TTST, Ross McCawley, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal
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Written by Petr Lebedev and Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Jason Tran and Petr Lebedev
Animation by Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, Ivy Tello and Mike Radjabov.
Molecule animation by Reciprocal Space – https://www.reciprocal.space
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Image
B-roll supplied by Seqirus Australia
Music from Epidemic Sound and Jonny Hyman
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
Thanks to Mike Henry and everyone at Mythic for the analog computing tour! mythic-ai.com
Thanks to Dr. Bernd Ulmann, who created The Analog Thing and taught us how to use it. the-analog-thing.org
Moore’s Law was filmed at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, CA.
Welch Labs’ ALVINN video: youtube.com/watch?v=H0igiP6Hg1k
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References:
Crevier, D. (1993). AI: The Tumultuous History Of The Search For Artificial Intelligence. Basic Books. – ve42.co/Crevier1993
Valiant, L. (2013). Probably Approximately Correct. HarperCollins. – ve42.co/Valiant2013
Rosenblatt, F. (1958). The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model for Information Storage and Organization in the Brain. Psychological Review, 65(6), 386-408. – ve42.co/Rosenblatt1958
NEW NAVY DEVICE LEARNS BY DOING; Psychologist Shows Embryo of Computer Designed to Read and Grow Wiser (1958). The New York Times, p. 25. – ve42.co/NYT1958
Mason, H., Stewart, D., and Gill, B. (1958). Rival. The New Yorker, p. 45. – ve42.co/Mason1958
Alvinn driving NavLab footage – ve42.co/NavLab
Pomerleau, D. (1989). ALVINN: An Autonomous Land Vehicle In a Neural Network. NeurIPS, (2)1, 305-313. – ve42.co/Pomerleau1989
ImageNet website – ve42.co/ImageNet
Russakovsky, O., Deng, J. et al. (2015). ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge. – ve42.co/ImageNetChallenge
AlexNet Paper: Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., Hinton, G. (2012). ImageNet Classification with Deep Convolutional Neural Networks. NeurIPS, (25)1, 1097-1105. – ve42.co/AlexNet
Karpathy, A. (2014). Blog post: What I learned from competing against a ConvNet on ImageNet. – ve42.co/Karpathy2014
Fick, D. (2018). Blog post: Mythic @ Hot Chips 2018. – ve42.co/MythicBlog
Jin, Y. & Lee, B. (2019). 2.2 Basic operations of flash memory. Advances in Computers, 114, 1-69. – ve42.co/Jin2019
Demler, M. (2018). Mythic Multiplies in a Flash. The Microprocessor Report. – ve42.co/Demler2018
Aspinity (2021). Blog post: 5 Myths About AnalogML. – ve42.co/Aspinity
Wright, L. et al. (2022). Deep physical neural networks trained with backpropagation. Nature, 601, 49–555. – ve42.co/Wright2022
Waldrop, M. M. (2016). The chips are down for Moore’s law. Nature, 530, 144–147. – ve42.co/Waldrop2016
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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Kelly Snook, TTST, Ross McCawley, Balkrishna Heroor, 65square.com, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller, Stephen Welch, and Emily Zhang
Filmed by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
Animation by Ivy Tello, Mike Radjabov, and Stephen Welch
Edited by Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
Thanks to Scott Wiedemann for the lego computer instructions – youtube.com/watch?v=5X_Ft4YR_wU
Antikythera Archive & Animations ©2005-2020 Images First Ltd. youtube.com/watch?v=1ebB0tyrMa8 "The Antikythera Cosmos" (2021) follows the latest developments from the UCL Antikythera Research Team as they recreate a dazzling display of the ancient Greek Cosmos at the front of the Antikythera Mechanism.
Tides video from NASA – climate.nasa.gov/climate_resources/246/video-global-ocean-tides
Ship animation from this painting – ve42.co/Agamemnon
Moore’s Law, the op-amp, and the Norden bombsight were filmed at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, CA.
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References:
Freeth, T., Bitsakis, Y., Moussas, X., Seiradakis, J. H., Tselikas, A., Mangou, H., ... & Edmunds, M. G. (2006). Decoding the ancient Greek astronomical calculator known as the Antikythera Mechanism. Nature, 444(7119), 587-591. – ve42.co/Freeth2006
Freeth, T., & Jones, A. (2012). The cosmos in the Antikythera mechanism. ISAW Papers. – ve42.co/Freeth2012
Cartwright, D. E. (2000). Tides: a scientific history. Cambridge University Press. – ve42.co/tides
Thomson, W. (2017). Mathematical and physical papers. CUP Archive. – ve42.co/Kelvinv6
Parker, B. B. (2007). Tidal analysis and prediction. NOAA NOS Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services. - ve42.co/Parker2007
Parker, B. (2011). The tide predictions for D-Day. Physics Today, 64(9), 35-40. – ve42.co/Parker2011
Small, J. (2013). The Analogue Alternative. Routledge. – ve42.co/Small2013
Zorpette, G. (1989). Parkinson's gun director. IEEE Spectrum, 26(4), 43. – ve42.co/Zorpette89
Tremblay, M. (2009). Deconstructing the myth of the Norden Bombsight (Doctoral dissertation). – ve42.co/Tremblay
Gladwell, M. (2021). The Bomber Mafia. Little, Brown and Company. - ve42.co/Gladwell2021
Mindell, D. A. (2000). Automation’s finest hour: Radar and system integration in World War II. Systems, Experts, and Computers: The Systems Approach in Management and Engineering, World War II and After. Edited by A. C. Hughes and T. P. Hughes, 27-56. – ve42.co/Mindell
Haigh, T., Priestley, M., & Rope, C. (2016). ENIAC in Action. The MIT Press. - ve42.co/Eniac2016
Soni, J., & Goodman, R. (2017). A mind at play: how Claude Shannon invented the information age. Simon and Schuster. – ve42.co/Soni
Haigh, T. & Ceruzzi, P. (2021). A New History of Modern Computing. The MIT Press. - ve42.co/ModernComputing
Rid, T. (2016). Rise of the Machines: a Cybernetic History. Highbridge. - ve42.co/Rid2016
Ulmann, B. (2013). Analog computing. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag. – ve42.co/Ulmann2013
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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Baranidharan S, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Daniel Brockman, Anton Ragin, S S, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Edward Larsen, Burt Humburg, Blak Byers, Dumky, , Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, Ludovic Robillard, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal
Written by Derek Muller, Stephen Welch and Emily Zhang
Filmed by Derek Muller, Emily Zhang and Raquel Nuno
Animation by Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, Mike Radjabov, Ivy Tello, Trenton Oliver
Edited by Derek Muller
Additional video supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound and Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev and Emily Zhang
Thanks to Dr Ken Libbrecht for showing us how to grow designer snowflakes. Obviously, this video would not have been possible without his help and his expertise. His website is full of information about snowflakes http://snowcrystals.com. His new book is also available to purchase from here -- ve42.co/SnowCrystalsBook
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References:
Libbrecht, K. G. (2019). A Quantitative Physical Model of the Snow Crystal Morphology Diagram. arXiv preprint arXiv:1910.09067. -- ve42.co/Libbrecht2019
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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Luis Felipe, Anton Ragin, Paul Peijzel, S S, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Sam Lutfi, MJP, Gnare, Nick DiCandilo, Dave Kircher, Edward Larsen, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Mike Tung, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Ismail Öncü Usta, Crated Comments, Anna, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, Oleksii Leonov, Jim Osmun, Tyson McDowell, Ludovic Robillard, Jim buckmaster, fanime96, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Vincent, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Alfred Wallace, Arjun Chakroborty, Joar Wandborg, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Ron Neal
Written by Derek Muller
Filmed by Derek Muller, Raquel Nuno, Trenton Oliver and Emily Zhang
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animations by Ivy Tello and Trenton Oliver
Additional video supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev and Emily Zhang
Huge thanks to Rick Cavallaro for creating this bike on short notice. Thanks to all the friends who participated in the filming. Rick was also responsible for the Blackbird Faster Than The Wind Downwind Cart. youtu.be/jyQwgBAaBag
Much of the information presented here on the stability of a riderless bicycle stems from original research at
Delft http://bicycle.tudelft.nl/schwab/Bicycle/
and
Cornell http://ruina.tam.cornell.edu/research/topics/bicycle_mechanics/overview.html
This line of bicycle-balance research was initiated by Jim Papadopoulos: nature.com/articles/535338a
Great videos on bikes and counter-steering:
MinutePhysics: How Do Bikes Stay Up? youtu.be/oZAc5t2lkvo
MinutePhysics: The Counterintuitive Physics of Turning a Bike: youtu.be/llRkf1fnNDM
Why Bicycles Do Not Fall - Arend Schwab TED talk: youtu.be/2Y4mbT3ozcA
Today I Found Out: We Still Don't Know How Bicycles Work youtu.be/YWsK6rmsKSI
TU Delft - Smart motor in handlebars prevents bicycles from falling over: youtu.be/rBOQp2uY_lk
Andy Ruina Explains How Bicycles Balance Themselves: youtu.be/NcZCzr9ExKk
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More References:
TU Delft Bicycle Site: http://bicycle.tudelft.nl/schwab/Bicycle/
Bicycle stability program: http://ruina.tam.cornell.edu/research/topics/bicycle_mechanics/JBike6_web_folder/index.htm
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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Luis Felipe, Anton Ragin, Paul Peijzel, S S, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Sam Lutfi, MJP, Gnare, Nick DiCandilo, Dave Kircher, Edward Larsen, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Mike Tung, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Ismail Öncü Usta, Crated Comments, Anna, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, Oleksii Leonov, Jim Osmun, Tyson McDowell, Ludovic Robillard, Jim buckmaster, fanime96, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Vincent, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Alfred Wallace, Arjun Chakroborty, Joar Wandborg, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson,Ron Neal
▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller
Filmed by Trenton Oliver, Raquel Nuno and Derek Muller
Edited by Derek Muller
Music from Epidemic Sound and Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev and Emily Zhang