Name: Indestructible Coating?! @veritasium
Uploaded: 2024-10-11T08:17:00-05:00
Duration: 8 min 17 s
Description: Indestructible Coating?!

Indestructible Coating?!

Veritasium 2024-10-11 | Indestructible Coating?!

Extreme Breath-Holding

Veritasium 2023-09-30 | This is how people can hold their breath for tens of minutes. Check out our sponsor: betterhelp.com/veritasium to get matched with a professional therapist who will listen and help.

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A huge thanks to Brandon Birchak for all his help with this video. To learn how to hold your breath for 5 minutes, or see one of Brandon’s performances, visit eliteperformancedesign.com and https://Sixfootcreations.com

A special thanks to Juan Valdivia for his expert advice on the science of extreme breath holding.

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References:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (n.d.). How your body controls breathing. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. - ve42.co/BodyBreathing

Anatomy, autonomic nervous system - statpearls - NCBI bookshelf. (n.d.-a). - ve42.co/ANS

Biochemistry, oxidative phosphorylation - statpearls - NCBI bookshelf. (n.d.-c). - ve42.co/ncbiATP

Acidosis. Acidosis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). - ve42.co/Acidosis

Evaluation of respiratory alkalosis. Evaluation of respiratory alkalosis - Differential diagnosis of symptoms | BMJ Best Practice US. (n.d.). - ve42.co/Alkalosis

Wilmshurst, P. (1998, October 10). Diving and Oxygen. BMJ (Clinical research ed.). - ve42.co/DivingO

López-Barneo, J., Ortega-Sáenz, P., Pardal, R., Pascual, A., & Piruat, J. I. (2008). Carotid body oxygen sensing. European Respiratory Journal, 32(5), 1386-1398. - ve42.co/Barneo2008

Jeff, & Huffy. (2022, November 17). The Bolt score test: Measure your breathing volume capacity. Marathon Handbook. - ve42.co/BOLT

Lindholm, P., & Lundgren, C. E. (2009). The physiology and pathophysiology of human breath-hold diving. Journal of Applied Physiology, 106(1), 284-292. - ve42.co/Lindholm2009

Physiology, lung capacity - statpearls - NCBI bookshelf. (n.d.-c). - ve42.co/LungCapacity

Panneton, W. M., & Gan, Q. (2020). The mammalian diving response: inroads to its neural control. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 14, 524. - ve42.co/Panneton2020

Baković, D., Eterović, D., Saratlija‐Novaković, X., Palada, I., Valic, Z., Bilopavlović, N., & Dujić, X. (2005). Effect of human splenic contraction on variation in circulating blood cell counts. Clinical and experimental pharmacology and physiology, 32(11), 944-951. ve42.co/Bakovic2005

Gooden, B. (1971). The diving response in man, rat and echidna (Doctoral dissertation). - ve42.co/Gooden1971

Longest duration breath hold - freediving static apnea (male). Guinness World Records. (n.d.). - ve42.co/DivingRecord

What’s the longest a human can hold their breath underwater? BBC Science Focus Magazine. (n.d.). - ve42.co/Southwell2023

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Amadeo Bee, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, Jesse Brandsoy, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Mario Bottion, Max Paladino, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures

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Directed by Derek Muller
Written by Felicity Nelson and Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Ivy Tello
Filmed by Derek Muller
Produced by Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound

All The Times We Nearly Blew Up The World

Veritasium 2023-09-11 | This is a video about some of the many times we have nearly blown up the world. Part of this video is brought to you by Henson -- head over to
hensonshaving.com/veritasium and enter code 'Veritasium' for 100 free blades with the purchase of a razor. Make sure to add both the razor and the blades to your cart for the code to take effect.

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References:
List of Broken Arrows -- ve42.co/AtomicArchive ve42.co/BrokenArrowsReport
Declassified Goldsboro Report -- ve42.co/Goldsboro
Operation ChromeDome -- ve42.co/OperationChromeDome
CIA website -- ve42.co/CIA

Cataclysmic cargo: The hunt for four missing nuclear bombs after a B-52 crash -- ve42.co/WoPo
THE LAST FLIGHT OF HOBO 28 -- ve42.co/lastflight
The Voice of Larry Messinger is from this documentary -- ve42.co/Messinger
Even Without Detonation, 4 Hydrogen Bombs From ’66 Scar Spanish Village -- ve42.co/NYTPalomares
Decades Later, Sickness Among Airmen After a Hydrogen Bomb Accident -- ve42.co/NYTPalomares2
Picture of ReVelle -- ve42.co/JackReVelle1
Great NPR where the audio of ReVelle is from -- ve42.co/JackReVelle2
CIA Website -- ve42.co/CIA

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, Jesse Brandsoy, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Mario Bottion, MaxPal, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures

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Directed by Petr Lebedev
Written by Petr Lebedev and Derek Muller
Edited by Peter Nelson
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, Ivy Tello and Mike Radjabov
Filmed by Derek Muller
Produced by Petr Lebedev and Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound

How The Most Useless Branch of Math Could Save Your Life

Veritasium 2023-09-03 | There is an entire branch of math simply devoted to knots – and it has changed the world. We’ll rope you in. Head to brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

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Huge thanks to Prof. Colin Adams for his excellent help guiding us through the world of knots.
Many thanks to Prof. Doug Smith, Dorian Raymer, Prof. David Leigh, and Prof. Dorothy Buck for helping us understand applications of knot theory.
Many thanks to Prof. Dan Silver & Prof. Jim Hoste for speaking with us about the history and tabulation of knots.

If you want to learn more about knots and play with them yourself, check out:
The amazing KnotPlot tool — knotplot.com/. Thanks to Rob Scharein for providing technical help as well!
A table of knots and all their invariants — https://knotinfo.math.indiana.edu/
The Knot Atlas for general info on knots — http://katlas.org/wiki/Main_Page

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Knot Theory Video References – ve42.co/KnotTheoryRefs

Images & Video:
Alexander Cutting the Gordian Knot by Donato Creti via Fine Art America - ve42.co/GordianCut
Indus Valley tablet via Quora - ve42.co/IndusValley
Pages from the Book of Kells via National Trust of Scotland - ve42.co/BookOfKells
Medieval Celtic designs from @thebookofkellsofficial via Instagram - ve42.co/KellsInsta
Chinese knotwork by YWang9174 via Wikimedia Commons - ve42.co/Panchang
Quipu cords by Pi3.124 via Wikimedia Commons - ve42.co/Quipu
Borromeo heraldry via Terre Borromeo - ve42.co/Borromeo
Birman/Jones letter via Celebratio Mathematica - ve42.co/JonesBirman
Molecular trefoil knot by M stone via Wikimedia Commons - ve42.co/TrefoilMolecule
X-ray structure of trefoil knot by Ll0103 via Wikimedia Commons - ve42.co/XrayTrefoil
Bacteria animation from Your Body's Molecular Machines by Drew Berry via the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research - http://wehi.tv
Topoisomerase and knots from Orlandini et al. Synergy of topoisomerase. PNAS, vol. 116, no. 17, 2019, pp. 8149–8154. – ve42.co/Orlandini2019
KnotProt 2.0: A database of proteins with knots and slipknots - ve42.co/Knotprot

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, Jesse Brandsoy, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Mario Bottion, MaxPal, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures

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Directed by Emily Zhang
Written by Emily Zhang and Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Ivy Tello, Jakub Misiek, and Mike Radjabov
Filmed by Derek Muller, Raquel Nuno, and Emily Zhang
Produced by Emily Zhang and Derek Muller

Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci and Mike Radjabov
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound

Should Airships Make a Comeback?

Veritasium 2023-08-31 | Will we see a new generation of airships roaming our skies? Head to odoo.com/r/veritasium to start building your own website for free.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – ve42.co/SnatomsV

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Thank you to Eli Dourado for letting us explore the argument he describes in his article: ve42.co/Dourado

A huge thank you to Dan Grossman and Nick Allman for their time, help, and expertise.

Also a massive thank you to those who helped us understand the world of modern airships, and provided valuable feedback - Prof. Barry Prentice, Gennadiy Verba, Prof.
Christoph Pflaum, Heather Roszczyk, Dr. Casey Handmer, Richard Van Trueren, & Thibault Proux.

We are also grateful for the collaboration of the companies who are working hard to make this comeback happen - Atlas LTA, Buoyant Aircraft Systems International, Hybrid Air Vehicles, LTA Research, & Flying Whales.

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References:

How Airships Could Overcome a Century of Failure, Bloomberg Originals via YouTube - ve42.co/AirshipsCoF

Why the Airship May Be the Future of Air Travel, Undecided with Matt Ferrell via YouTube - ve42.co/FutureAirships

Airship, Wikipedia - ve42.co/AirshipWiki

Handmer, C. (2020). A quick note on airships. Casey Handmer’s Blog - ve42.co/Handmer2020

UNCTAD (2020). Review of Maritime Transport 2020 - ve42.co/RMT2020

National Transportation Research Center (2023). Freight Analysis Framework Version 5 (FAF5) - ve42.co/FAF5

Hybrid Air Vehicles (2023). HAV - ve42.co/HAV

LTA Research (2023). Lighter Than Air (LTA) Research - ve42.co/LTAResearch

OceanSkyCruises (2023). North Pole Expedition - OceanSkyCruises - ve42.co/NPExpedition

Flying Whales (2023). Flying Whales - ve42.co/FlyingWhales

Buoyant Aircraft Systems International (2023). BASI - ve42.co/BASI

Atlas LTA (2023). Atlas Electric Airships | Atlas LTA Airships - ve42.co/AtlasLTA

Prentice, B. (2021). Hydrogen gas-fuelled airships could spur development in remote communities. The Conversation - ve42.co/HydrogenAirships

Grossman, D. (2009). The Hindenburg Disaster. Airships - ve42.co/Hindenburg1

Hindenburg Disaster, Wikipedia - ve42.co/HindenburgWiki

What happened to the Hindenburg?, Jared Owen via Youtube - ve42.co/Owen2019

National Museum of the U.S. Navy. USS Akron (ZRS-4) - ve42.co/USSAkron

USS Akron, Wikipedia - ve42.co/USSAkronWiki

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Amadeo Bee, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Benedikt Heinen, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, Jesse Brandsoy, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Mario Bottion, MaxPal, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures

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Written by Casper Mebius & Derek Muller
Directed by Casper Mebius
Edited by Jack Saxon
Filmed by Derek Muller, Jamie MacLeod, Han Evans, & Raquel Nuno
Animation by Mike Radjabov & Fabio Albertelli
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Pond5, & Envato Elements
Music from Epidemic Sound & Pond5
Produced by Casper Mebius, Derek Muller, & Han Evans

More footage & photos from:
Thermite Rail Welding video by dulevoz via YouTube - youtube.com/watch?v=rNjosF789X4

O’Rourke, T. (2016). Chronicle Covers: When the Hindenburg burst into flames. San Francisco Chronicle - ve42.co/Hindenburg2

Wind turbine blade transport video by DOLL Fahrzeugbau via YouTube - youtube.com/watch?v=5aPXuap0LZw

Wind turbine blade transport through mountains video by CGTN via Youtube - youtube.com/watch?v=9dtUrY8_1CM

Former Airship Hangar by Stefan Kühn - ve42.co/Aerium

I Took an IQ Test to Find Out What it Actually Measures

Veritasium 2023-08-03 | IQ is supposed to measure intelligence, but does it? Head to brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – ve42.co/SnatomsV

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A huge thank you to Emeritus Professor Cecil R. Reynolds and Dr. Stuart J. Ritchie for their expertise and time.

Also a massive thank you to Prof. Steven Piantadosi and Prof. Alan S. Kaufman for helping us understand this complicated topic. As well as to Jay Zagrosky from Boston University's Questrom School of Business for providing data from his study.

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References:
Kaufman, A. S. (2009). IQ testing 101. Springer Publishing Company.

Reynolds, C. R., & Livingston, R. A. (2021). Mastering modern psychological testing. Springer International Publishing.

Ritchie, S. (2015). Intelligence: All that matters. John Murray.

Spearman, C. (1961). " General Intelligence" Objectively Determined and Measured. - ve42.co/Spearman1904

Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1907). Le développement de l'intelligence chez les enfants. L'Année psychologique, 14(1), 1-94.. - ve42.co/Binet1907

Intelligence Quotient, Wikipedia - ve42.co/IQWiki

Radiolab Presents: G. - ve42.co/RadioLabG

McDaniel, M. A. (2005). Big-brained people are smarter: A meta-analysis of the relationship between in vivo brain volume and intelligence. Intelligence, 33(4), 337-346. - ve42.co/McDaniel2005

Deary, I. J., Strand, S., Smith, P., & Fernandes, C. (2007). Intelligence and educational achievement. Intelligence, 35(1), 13-21. - ve42.co/Deary2007

Lozano-Blasco, R., Quílez-Robres, A., Usán, P., Salavera, C., & Casanovas-López, R. (2022). Types of Intelligence and Academic Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Intelligence, 10(4), 123. - ve42.co/Blasco2022

Kuncel, N. R., & Hezlett, S. A. (2010). Fact and fiction in cognitive ability testing for admissions and hiring decisions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(6), 339-345. - ve42.co/Kuncel2010

Laurence, J. H., & Ramsberger, P. F. (1991). Low-aptitude men in the military: Who profits, who pays?. Praeger Publishers. - ve42.co/Laurence1991

Gregory, H. (2015). McNamara's Folly: The Use of Low-IQ Troops in the Vietnam War; Plus the Induction of Unfit Men, Criminals, and Misfits. Infinity Publishing.

Gottfredson, L. S., & Deary, I. J. (2004). Intelligence predicts health and longevity, but why?. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(1), 1-4. - ve42.co/Gottfredson2004

Sanchez-Izquierdo, M., Fernandez-Ballesteros, R., Valeriano-Lorenzo, E. L., & Botella, J. (2023). Intelligence and life expectancy in late adulthood: A meta-analysis. Intelligence, 98, 101738. - ve42.co/Izquierdo2023

Zagorsky, J. L. (2007). Do you have to be smart to be rich? The impact of IQ on wealth, income and financial distress. Intelligence, 35(5), 489-501. - ve42.co/Zagorsky2007

Strenze, T. (2007). Intelligence and socioeconomic success: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal research. Intelligence, 35(5), 401-426. - ve42.co/Strenze2007

Deary, I. J., Pattie, A., & Starr, J. M. (2013). The stability of intelligence from age 11 to age 90 years: the Lothian birth cohort of 1921. Psychological science, 24(12), 2361-2368. - ve42.co/Deary2013

Flynn, J. R. (1987). Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure. Psychological bulletin, 101(2), 171. - ve42.co/Flynn1987

Why our IQ levels are higher than our grandparents' | James Flynn, TED via YouTube - youtube.com/watch?v=9vpqilhW9uI

Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., Lynam, D. R., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2011). Role of test motivation in intelligence testing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(19), 7716-7720. - ve42.co/Duckworth2011

Kulik, J. A., Bangert-Drowns, R. L., & Kulik, C. L. C. (1984). Effectiveness of coaching for aptitude tests. Psychological Bulletin, 95(2), 179. - ve42.co/Kulik1984

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Amadeo Bee, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Benedikt Heinen, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, MaxPal, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures

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Written by Derek Muller, Casper Mebius, & Petr Lebedev
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Derek Muller, Han Evans, & Raquel Nuno
Animation by Fabio Albertelli & Ivy Tello
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Casper Mebius, & Han Evans

Why Oppenheimer Deserves His Own Movie

Veritasium 2023-07-18 | J. Robert Oppenheimer forever changed the course of history. He may be the most important physicist to have ever lived. Part of this video is sponsored by Wren. Offset your carbon footprint on Wren: wren.co/start/veritasium1 For the first 100 people who sign up, I will personally pay for the first month of your subscription!

If you want to learn more about Oppeheimer, I strongly recommend the book “American Prometheus” By Kai Bird and Martin Sherwin. It is a remarkable book, very much deserving of the Pulitzer prize it received.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – ve42.co/SnatomsV

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A huge thank you to Dr. Martin Rohde and Dr. Antonia Denkova from the TU Delft for proofreading the script and providing valuable feedback.

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References:

Bird, K., & Sherwin, M. J. (2021). American Prometheus: the triumph and tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer. Atlantic Books.

Smith, A. K., & Weiner, C. (1980). Robert Oppenheimer: letters and recollections. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 36(5), 19-27. - ve42.co/Smith1980

Combes, J. M., Duclos, P., & Seiler, R. (1981). The born-oppenheimer approximation. Rigorous atomic and molecular physics, 185-213. - ve42.co/Combes1981

Rhodes, R. (2012). The making of the atomic bomb. Simon and Schuster.

Oppenheimer, J. R., & Volkoff, G. M. (1939). On massive neutron cores. Physical Review, 55(4), 374. - ve42.co/Oppenheimer1939b

Oppenheimer, J. R. (1927). Bemerkung zur Zerstreuung der α-Teilchen. Zeitschrift für Physik, 43(5-6), 413-415. - ve42.co/Oppenheimer1927

Oppenheimer, J. R. (1927). Zur quantenmechanik der richtungsentartung. Zeitschrift für Physik, 43(1-2), 27-46. - ve42.co/Oppenheimer1927b

Born, M., & Oppenheimer, R. (1927). Zur Quantentheorie der Molekeln Annalen der Physik, v. 84. - ve42.co/Born1927

Oppenheimer, J. R. (1928). Three notes on the quantum theory of aperiodic effects. Physical review, 31(1), 66.

Oppenheimer, J. R. (1928). On the quantum theory of the capture of electrons. Physical review, 31(3), 349.

Oppenheimer, J. R. (1931). Note on light quanta and the electromagnetic field. Physical Review, 38(4), 725.

Furry, W. H., & Oppenheimer, J. R. (1934). On the theory of the electron and positive. Physical Review, 45(4), 245. - ve42.co/Oppenheimer1934

Oppenheimer, J. R. (1935). Note on charge and field fluctuations. Physical Review, 47(2), 144. - ve42.co/Oppenheimer1935

Oppenheimer, J. R., & Snyder, H. (1939). On continued gravitational contraction. Physical Review, 56(5), 455. - ve42.co/Oppenheimer1939

Oppenheimer, J. R., & Phillips, M. (1935). Note on the transmutation function for deuterons. Physical Review, 48(6), 500. - ve42.co/Oppenheimer1935b

Malik, J. (1985). Yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki nuclear explosions (No. LA-8819). Los Alamos National Lab.(LANL), Los Alamos, NM (United States). - ve42.co/Malik1985

Ignition of the atmosphere with nuclear bombs -- ve42.co/Konopinski46

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Amadeo Bee, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Benedikt Heinen, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Blake Byers, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures

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Written by Petr Lebedev & Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver & Katrina Jackson
Filmed by Derek Muller
Animation by Fabio Albertelli, Ivy Tello, & Mike Radjabov
Illustration by Jakub Misiek and Celia Bode
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound

The Hidden Science of Fireworks

Veritasium 2023-07-07 | This is the biggest, brightest, hottest video there is about the science of fireworks. This video is brought to you by Kiwico – go to kiwico.com/veritasium for your first month free!

If you're looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms - a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically: snatoms.com

Check out Gene’s channel here -- @PotatoJet

Massive thanks to Mike Tockstein from Pyrotechnic Innovations @PyroInnovations
and Will Scott from Las Vegas Display Fireworks Inc, for all your pyro knowledge and keeping us safe.

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Massive thanks to Gene Nagata from PotatoJet for filming this episode – check out his wonderful channel for more videos about cameras and FPV drones.

Thanks to Brandon Williams for helping with the chemistry and sourcing of materials.

Thanks to Matthew Tosh for the help with the chemistry conversation about fireworks.

Thanks to Simon Werrett for the help with the history of fireworks.

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Werrett, S. (2010). Fireworks: pyrotechnic arts and sciences in European history. University of Chicago Press

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi.

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Written by Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Ivy Tello and Fabio Albertelli
Filmed by Derek Muller, Hunter Peterson, Gene Nagata, Raquel Nuno
Production by Hunter Peterson and Stephanie Castillo
Additional video/photos supplied by Mike Tockstein/Pyrotechnic Innovations
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang, & Casper Mebius

The Most Misunderstood Concept in Physics

Veritasium 2023-07-01 | One of the most important, yet least understood, concepts in all of physics. Head to brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

If you're looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms - a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically: snatoms.com

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A huge thank you to those who helped us understand different aspects of this complicated topic - Dr. Ashmeet Singh, Supriya Krishnamurthy, Dr. Jos Thijssen, Dr. Bijoy Bera, Dr. Timon Idema, Álvaro Bermejillo Seco and Dr. Misha Titov.

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References:
Carnot, S. (1824). Reflections on the motive power of heat: and on machines fitted to develop that power. - ve42.co/Carnot1890

Harnessing The True Power Of Atoms | Order And Disorder Documentaries, Spark via YouTube - ve42.co/OrderDisorder

A better description of entropy, Steve Mould via YouTube - ve42.co/Mould2016

Dugdale, J. S. (1996). Entropy and its physical meaning. CRC Press. - ve42.co/Dugdale1996

Schroeder, D. V. (1999). An introduction to thermal physics. - ve42.co/Schroeder2021

Fowler, M. Heat Engines: the Carnot Cycle, University of Virginia. - ve42.co/Fowler2023

Chandler, D.L. (2010). Explained: The Carnot Limit, MIT News - ve42.co/Chandler2010

Entropy, Wikipedia - ve42.co/EntropyWiki

Clausius, R. (1867). The mechanical theory of heat. Van Voorst. - ve42.co/Clausius1867

What is entropy? TED-Ed via YouTube - ve42.co/Phillips2017

Thijssen, J. (2018) Lecture Notes Statistical Physics, TU Delft.

Schneider, E. D., & Kay, J. J. (1994). Life as a manifestation of the second law of thermodynamics. Mathematical and computer modelling, 19(6-8), 25-48. - ve42.co/Schneider1994

Lineweaver, C. H., & Egan, C. A. (2008). Life, gravity and the second law of thermodynamics. Physics of Life Reviews, 5(4), 225-242. - ve42.co/Lineweaver2008

Michaelian, K. (2012). HESS Opinions" Biological catalysis of the hydrological cycle: life's thermodynamic function". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 16(8), 2629-2645. - ve42.co/Michaelian2012

England, J. L. (2013). Statistical physics of self-replication. The Journal of chemical physics, 139(12), 09B623_1. - ve42.co/England2013

England, J. L. (2015). Dissipative adaptation in driven self-assembly. Nature nanotechnology, 10(11), 919-923. - ve42.co/England2015

Wolchover, N. (2014). A New Physics Theory of Life, Quantamagazine - ve42.co/Wolchover2014

Lineweaver, C. H. (2013). The entropy of the universe and the maximum entropy production principle. In Beyond the Second Law: Entropy Production and Non-equilibrium Systems (pp. 415-427). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - ve42.co/LineweaverEntropy

Bekenstein, J.D. (1972). Black holes and the second law. Lett. Nuovo Cimento 4, 737–740. - ve42.co/Bekenstein1972

Carroll, S.M. (2022). The Biggest Ideas in the Universe: Space, Time, and Motion. Penguin Publishing Group. - ve42.co/Carroll2022

Black hole thermodynamics, Wikipedia - ve42.co/BlackHoleTD

Cosmology and the arrow of time: Sean Carroll at TEDxCaltech, TEDx Talks via YouTube - ve42.co/CarrollTEDx

Carroll, S. M. (2008). The cosmic origins of time’s arrow. Scientific American, 298(6), 48-57. - ve42.co/Carroll2008

The Passage of Time and the Meaning of Life | Sean Carroll (Talk + Q&A), Long Now Foundation via YouTube - ve42.co/CarrollLNF

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi.

▀▀▀
Written by Casper Mebius, Derek Muller & Petr Lebedev
Edited by Trenton Oliver & Jamie MacLeod
Animated by Mike Radjabov, Ivy Tello, Fabio Albertelli and Jakub Misiek
Filmed by Derek Muller, Albert Leung & Raquel Nuno
Molecular collisions video by CSIRO's Data61 via YouTube: Simulation of air
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Pond5 and by courtesy of NASA, NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA Goddard Flight Lab/ CI Lab, NASA/SDO and the AIA, EVE, HMI, and WMAP science teams. As well as the Advanced Visualization Laboratory at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications, B. Robertson, L. Hernquist
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang, & Casper Mebius

I Vacuum Venom from the Worlds Deadliest Spider

Veritasium 2023-06-21 | Go to our sponsor betterhelp.com/veritasium to get matched with a professional therapist who will listen and help.

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Huge thanks to the Australian Reptile Park for having us over to film – special thanks to Jake Meney for showing us the spiders and Caitlin Vine for organizing the shoot. https://www.reptilepark.com.au

Huge thanks to Dr Timothy Jackson with his help and answering our questions.

Thanks to Seqirus Australia for providing B-roll footage of the antivenom production process.

▀▀▀
References:

Pineda, S. S., Sollod, B. L., Wilson, D., Darling, A., Sunagar, K., Undheim, E. A., ... & King, G. F. (2014). Diversification of a single ancestral gene into a successful toxin superfamily in highly venomous Australian funnel-web spiders. BMC genomics, 15(1), 1-16 - ve42.co/Pineda2014

Isbister, G. K., Gray, M. R., Balit, C. R., Raven, R. J., Stokes, B. J., Porges, K., ... & Fisher, M. M. (2005). Funnel-web spider bite: a systematic review of recorded clinical cases. Medical journal of Australia, 182(8), 407-411 - ve42.co/Isbister2005

Herzig, V., Sunagar, K., Wilson, D. T., Pineda, S. S., Israel, M. R., Dutertre, S., ... & Fry, B. G. (2020). Australian funnel-web spiders evolved human-lethal δ-hexatoxins for defense against vertebrate predators. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(40), 24920-24928 - ve42.co/Herzig2020

Nicholson, G. M., & Graudins, A. (2002). Spiders of medical importance in the Asia–Pacific: Atracotoxin, latrotoxin and related spider neurotoxins. Clinical and experimental pharmacology and physiology, 29(9), 785-794 - ve42.co/Nicholson2002

Fletcher, J. I., Chapman, B. E., Mackay, J. P., Howden, M. E., & King, G. F. (1997). The structure of versutoxin (δ-atracotoxin-Hv1) provides insights into the binding of site 3 neurotoxins to the voltage-gated sodium channel. Structure, 5(11), 1525-1535 - ve42.co/Fletcher1997

Australian Reptile Park. (2022). Snake and Spider First Aid - ve42.co/ARPFirstAid

The Australian Museum. (20 ). Spider facts - ve42.co/SpiderFacts

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Orlando Bassotto, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, and Sam Lutfi

▀▀▀
Written by Katie Barnshaw & Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller and Jason Tran
Animation by Ivy Tello, Jakub Misiek and Fabio Albertelli
Neuron animation by Reciprocal Space – https://www.reciprocal.space
Additional video/photos supplied from Getty Images, Pond5
B-roll supplied by Seqirus Australia
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang & Katie Barnshaw

Mathematicians Use Numbers Differently From The Rest of Us

Veritasium 2023-06-06 | There's a strange number system, featured in the work of a dozen Fields Medalists, that helps solve problems that are intractable with real numbers. Head to brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

If you're looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms - a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically: snatoms.com

▀▀▀
References:

Koblitz, N. (2012). p-adic Numbers, p-adic Analysis, and Zeta-Functions (Vol. 58). Springer Science & Business Media.

Amazing intro to p-adic numbers here: youtu.be/3gyHKCDq1YA
Excellent series on p-adic numbers: youtu.be/VTtBDSWR1Ac
Great videos by James Tanton: @JamesTantonMath

▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi.

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller and Alex Kontorovich
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Mike Radjabov, Ivy Tello, Fabio Albertelli and Jakub Misiek
Filmed by Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, & Emily Zhang

The Fastest Maze-Solving Competition On Earth

Veritasium 2023-05-24 | Welcome to Micromouse, the fastest maze-solving competition on Earth. Join Onshape’s community of over 3 million CAD users by creating a free account here: https://Onshape.pro/Veritasium.

▀▀▀
A huge thank you to Peter Harrison for all of his help introducing us to the world of Micromouse – check out ukmars.org & https://micromouseonline.com.
Thank you to David Otten, APEC, and the All-Japan Micromouse Competition for having us.
Thank you to Juing-Hei (youtube.com/@suhu9379) & Derek Hall (youtube.com/@MicroMouse) for usage of their micromouse videos.
Thank you to John McBride, Yusaku Kanagawa, and Katie Barnshaw for their help with Japanese translations.

▀▀▀
References:
Claude Shannon Demonstrates Machine Learning, AT&T Tech Channel Archive - ve42.co/ClaudeShannon
Mighty mouse, MIT News Magazine - ve42.co/MightyMouse
History, Micromouse Online Blog - ve42.co/MMHistory
Christiansen, D. (1977). Spectral lines: Announcing the Amazing Micro-Mouse Maze Contest. IEEE Spectrum, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 27-27 - ve42.co/Christiansen1977
Allan, R. (1979). Microprocessors: The amazing micromice: See how they won: Probing the innards of the smartest and fastest entries in the Amazing Micro-Mouse Maze Contest. IEEE Spectrum, vol. 16, no. 9, pp. 62-65, - ve42.co/Allan1979
1977-79 – “MOONLIGHT SPECIAL” Battelle Inst. (American), CyberNetic Zoo - ve42.co/MoonlightSpecial
Christiansen, D. (2014). The Amazing MicroMouse Roars On. Spectral Lines - ve42.co/Christiansen2014
1986 - MicroMouse history, competition & how it got started in the USA, via YouTube - ve42.co/MMArchiveYT
The first World Micromouse Contest in Tsubuka, Japan, August 1985 [1/2] by TKsTclip via YouTube - ve42.co/MMTsukubaYT
IEEE. (2018). Micromouse Competition Rules - ve42.co/IEEERules
Tondra, D. (2004). The Inception of Chedda: A detailed design and analysis of micromouse. University of Nevada - ve42.co/Tondra2004
Braunl, T. (1999). Research relevance of mobile robot competitions. IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 32-37 - ve42.co/Braunl1999
All Japan Micromouse 2017 by Peter Harrison, Micromouse Online - ve42.co/RedComet
Winning record of the national competition micromouse (half size) competition. mm3sakusya @ wiki (Google translated from Japanese) - ve42.co/JapanFinishTimes
The Fosbury Flop—A Game-Changing Technique, Smithsonian Magazine - ve42.co/FosburyFlop
Gold medal winning heights in the Men's and Women's high jump at the Summer Olympics from 1896 to 2020, Statistica - ve42.co/HighJump
Zhang, H., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., & Soon, P. L. (2016). Design and realization of two-wheel micro-mouse diagonal dashing. Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems, 31(4), 2299-2306. - ve42.co/Zhang2016
Micromouse Turn List, Keri’s Lab - ve42.co/MMTurns
Green Ye via YouTube - ve42.co/Greenye
Classic Micromouse, Excel 9a. Demonstrate fan suction, by TzongYong Khiew via YouTube - ve42.co/MMFanYT
Vacuum Micromouse by Eliot, HACKADAY - ve42.co/MMVacuum

▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi.

▀▀▀
Written by Tom Lum and Emily Zhang
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Ivy Tello
Coordinated by Emily Zhang
Filmed by Yusaku Kanagawa, Emily Zhang, and Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ren Hurley and Ignat Berbeci
References by Katie Barnshaw
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

Why The First Computers Were Made Out Of Light Bulbs

Veritasium 2023-05-13 | Lightbulbs might be the best idea ever – just not for light. Head to brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

A huge thanks to David Lovett for showing me his awesome relay and vacuum tube based computers. Check out his YouTube channel @UsagiElectric

▀▀▀
References:
Herring, C., & Nichols, M. H. (1949). Thermionic emission. Reviews of modern physics, 21(2), 185. – ve42.co/Herring1949

Goldstine, H. H., & Goldstine, A. (1946). The electronic numerical integrator and computer (eniac). Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 2(15), 97-110. – ve42.co/ENIAC

Shannon, C. E. (1938). A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits. Electrical Engineering, 57(12), 713-723. – ve42.co/Shannon38

Boole, G. (1847). The mathematical analysis of logic. Philosophical Library. – ve42.co/Boole1847

The world’s first general purpose computer turns 75 – ve42.co/ENIAC2

Dylla, H. F., & Corneliussen, S. T. (2005). John Ambrose Fleming and the beginning of electronics. Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films, 23(4), 1244-1251. – ve42.co/Dylla2005

Stibitz, G. R. (1980). Early computers. In A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (pp. 479-483). Academic Press.

ENIAC’s Hydrogen Bomb Calculations – ve42.co/ENIAC3

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy ‘kkm’ K’Nelson, Sam Lutfi.

▀▀▀
Written by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller and Kovi Rose
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Mike Radjabov, Ivy Tello and Fabio Albertelli
Filmed by Derek Muller & Raquel Nuno
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, & Emily Zhang
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci

How NASA Reinvented The Wheel

Veritasium 2023-04-29 | NASA have made a wheel capable of withstanding tough Martian terrain, but just how indestructible is it? Head to hensonshaving.com/veritasium and enter code 'Veritasium' for 100 free blades with the purchase of a razor. Make sure to add both the razor and the blades to your cart for the code to take effect.

▀▀▀
A huge thanks to everyone at NASA Glenn Research Center for having us at the SLOPE Lab, showing their work on this indestructible tire, and helping with the science and animation.
A huge thanks to everyone at Smart Tire Co for showing us around their facility, teaching us about nitinol, and letting us flatten their tires.

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References:

Steel Rod Footage - ve42.co/SteelRod

H. Föll. 8.4.1 - Martensite. University of Kiel, Faculty of Engineering - ve42.co/Foell

Bhattacharya, K. (1998). Theory of martensitic microstructure and the shape-memory effect - ve42.co/Bhattacharya1998

Bhattacharya, K. (2003). Microstructure of martensite: why it forms and how it gives rise to the shape-memory effect (Vol. 2). Oxford University Press. - ve42.co/MartensiteBook

Shaw, J. A. (2008). Tips and tricks for characterizing shape memory alloy wire: part 1—differential scanning calorimetry and basic phenomena. Experimental Techniques - ve42.co/Shaw2008

Buehler, W. J., Gilfrich, J. V., & Wiley, R. C. (1963). Effect of low‐temperature phase changes on the mechanical properties of alloys near composition TiNi. Journal of applied physics, 34(5), 1475-1477.

Kauffman, G. B., & Mayo, I. (1997). The story of nitinol: the serendipitous discovery of the memory metal and its applications. The chemical educator, 2, 1-21. - ve42.co/Kauffman1997

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy ‘kkm’ K’Nelson, Sam Lutfi.

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller, Katie Barnshaw, & Emily Zhang
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Mike Radjabov & Ivy Tello
Coordinated by Emily Zhang
Filmed by Derek Muller, Emily Zhang & Raquel Nuno
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, & Emily Zhang
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci

Getting Buried In Concrete To Explain How It Works

Veritasium 2023-04-14 | Concrete = cement + sand + gravel. Cement is the most important man-made material on Earth. Offset your carbon footprint on Wren: wren.co/veritasium . For the first 100 people who sign up, I will personally pay for the first month of your subscription!

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A huge thank you to Nevada Ready Mix for being willing to bury me in concrete, especially Elu Chavez and Mike Sherwood. nevadareadymix.com

And to Brandon Birchak of Six Foot Productions for providing the big fish bowl, safety equipment, planning and filming: sixfootcreations.com

▀▀▀
References:
Instant stone (just add water), Roots of Progress, rootsofprogress.org/instant-stone-just-add-water
rootsofprogress.org/cement-redux

Cement Chemistry and Sustainable Cementitious Materials
youtube.com/@cementchemistryandsustaina9629

Ahmad, S., Lawan, A., & Al-Osta, M. (2020). Effect of sugar dosage on setting time, microstructure and strength of Type I and Type V Portland cements. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 13, e00364. – ve42.co/Ahmad2020

Seymour, L. M., Maragh, J., Sabatini, P., Di Tommaso, M., Weaver, J. C., & Masic, A. (2023). Hot mixing: Mechanistic insights into the durability of ancient Roman concrete. Science advances, 9(1), eadd1602. -- ve42.co/Seymour2023

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi.

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Raquel Nuno, Austin Bradley and Bryson
Animated by Ivy Tello & Mike Radjabov
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman: the Bill Wurtz inspired ‘Skyscrapers are made of sea shells’
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, & Emily Zhang

The illusion only some can see

Veritasium 2023-04-02 | This is the Ames window illusion

How Quantum Computers Break The Internet... Starting Now

Veritasium 2023-03-20 | A quantum computer in the next decade could crack the encryption our society relies on using Shor's Algorithm. Head to brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

▀▀▀
A huge thank you to those who helped us understand this complex field and ensure we told this story accurately - Dr. Lorenz Panny, Prof. Serge Fehr, Dr. Dustin Moody, Prof. Benne de Weger, Prof. Tanja Lange, PhD candidate Jelle Vos, Gorjan Alagic, and Jack Hidary.

A huge thanks to those who helped us with the math behind Shor’s algorithm - Prof. David Elkouss, Javier Pagan Lacambra, Marc Serra Peralta, and Daniel Bedialauneta Rodriguez.

▀▀▀
References:
Joseph, D., et al. (2022). Transitioning organizations to post-quantum cryptography. Nature, 605(7909), 237-243. - ve42.co/Joseph2022

Bernstein, D. J., & Lange, T. (2017). Post-quantum cryptography. Nature, 549(7671), 188-194. - ve42.co/Bernstein2017

An Insight, An Idea with Sundar Pichai - Quantum Computing, Wold Economic Forum via YouTube - ve42.co/QCWEFyt

Migrating to Post-Quantum Cryptography, The White House - ve42.co/PQCWhiteHouse

Kotas, W. A. (2000). A brief history of cryptography. University of Tennessee - ve42.co/Kotas2000

Hellman, M. (1976). New directions in cryptography. IEEE transactions on Information Theory, 22(6), 644-654. - ve42.co/Hellman1976

Rivest, R. L., Shamir, A., & Adleman, L. (1978). A method for obtaining digital signatures and public-key cryptosystems. Communications of the ACM, 21(2), 120-126. - ve42.co/Rivest1978

Kak, A. (2023). Lecture 12: Public-Key Cryptography and the RSA Algorithm - ve42.co/Kak2023

Calderbank, M. (2007). The RSA Cryptosystem: History, Algorithm, Primes. University of Chicago. - ve42.co/Calderbank2007

Cryptographic Key Length Recommendation, Keylength - ve42.co/KeyLength

Coppersmith, D. (2002). An approximate Fourier transform useful in quantum factoring. arXiv preprint quant-ph/0201067. - ve42.co/Coppersmith2002

Quantum Fourier Transform, Qiskit - ve42.co/Qiskit

Shor, P. W. (1994, November). Algorithms for quantum computation: discrete logarithms and factoring. In Proceedings 35th annual symposium on foundations of computer science (pp. 124-134). IEEE. - ve42.co/Shor1994

Shor’s algorithm, Wikipedia - ve42.co/ShorWiki

Euler’s totient function, Wikipedia - ve42.co/EulerWiki

Asfaw, A. (2020). Shor’s Algorithm Lecture Series, Qiskit Summer School - ve42.co/ShorYT

How Quantum Computers Break Encryption, minutephysics via YouTube - ve42.co/PQCmpyt

Breaking RSA Encryption - an Update on the State-of-the-Art, QuintessenceLabs - ve42.co/QuintessenceLabs

O'Gorman, J., & Campbell, E. T. (2017). Quantum computation with realistic magic-state factories. Physical Review A, 95(3), 032338. - ve42.co/OGorman2017

Gidney, C., & Ekerå, M. (2021). How to factor 2048 bit RSA integers in 8 hours using 20 million noisy qubits. Quantum, 5, 433. - ve42.co/Gidney2021

2021 Quantum Threat Timeline Report, Global Risk Institute - ve42.co/QuantumRisk

The IBM Quantum Development Roadmap, IBM - ve42.co/IBMQC

Post-Quantum Cryptography, Computer Security Resource Center (NIST) - ve42.co/CSRCPQC

Alagic, G., et al. (2022). Status report on the third round of the NIST post-quantum cryptography standardization process. US Department of Commerce, NIST. - ve42.co/Alagic2022

Thijs, L. (2015). Lattice cryptography and lattice cryptanalysis - ve42.co/Thijs2015

▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Tj Steyn, Meg Noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Elliot Miller, Jerome Barakos, M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin, Jr., Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi.

▀▀▀
Written by Casper Mebius & Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Raquel Nuno
Animated by Ivy Tello & Mike Radjabov
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, & Emily Zhang

Worlds Strongest Magnet!

Veritasium 2023-03-14 | The world's strongest magnet is a million times stronger than Earth's magnetic field. Learn more about sustainability and Google’s efforts at sustainability.google. Part of this video was sponsored by Google.

Trends insights for the past year are based on Google Trends data from 2/10/2022 - 2/10/2023, U.S.

▀▀▀
Thanks to the entire NHMFL team - especially Tim, Stephen, Caroline, Kristin, Sam, Lance, and everyone who helped with the demos - for the great visit.
The NHMFL is funded by the National Science Foundation and the State of Florida.

Special thanks to Henry from Minutephysics for lending his magnet animations from our magnet collaboration: youtu.be/hFAOXdXZ5TM

▀▀▀
References:
Liu, Y., Zhu, D. M., Strayer, D. M., & Israelsson, U. E. (2010). Magnetic levitation of large water droplets and mice. Advances in Space Research, 45(1), 208-213.

Simon, M. D., & Geim, A. K. (2000). Diamagnetic levitation: Flying frogs and floating magnets. Journal of applied physics, 87(9), 6200-6204.

Berry, M. V., & Geim, A. K. (1997). Of flying frogs and levitrons. European Journal of Physics, 18(4), 307.

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Tj Steyn, Meg Noah, Bernard McGee, James Sanger, Elliot Miller, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller
Edited and Motion Graphics by Trenton Oliver
Coordinated by Emily Zhang and Derek Muller
Filmed by Derek Muller, Trenton Oliver, Raquel Nuno and Emily Zhang
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 & Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

The Damaged Chernobyl Reactor

Veritasium 2023-03-07 | The containment facility for the damaged Chernobyl nuclear reactor being built back in 2014

Microwaving grapes makes plasma

Veritasium 2023-02-25 | ...

Worlds Roundest Object

Veritasium 2023-02-19 | This silicon sphere was made to redefine the kilogram

193,340 People Agree With Me, 85,660 Disagree

Veritasium 2023-02-11 | For decades, the Sleeping Beauty Problem has divided people between two answers. Head to brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 of you will get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

▀▀▀
Many thanks to Dr. Mike Titelbaum and Dr. Adam Elga for their insights into the problem.

▀▀▀
References:

Elga, A. (2000). Self-locating belief and the Sleeping Beauty problem. Analysis, 60(2), 143-147. - ve42.co/Elga2000

Lewis, D. (2001). Sleeping beauty: reply to Elga. Analysis, 61(3), 171-176. - ve42.co/Lewis2001

Winkler, P. (2017). The sleeping beauty controversy. The American Mathematical Monthly, 124(7), 579-587. - ve42.co/Winkler2017

Titelbaum, M. G. (2013). Ten reasons to care about the Sleeping Beauty problem. Philosophy Compass, 8(11), 1003-1017. - ve42.co/Titelbaum2013

Mutalik, P. (2016). Solution: ‘Sleeping Beauty’s Dilemma’, Quanta Magazine - ve42.co/MutalikQ2016

Rec.Puzzles - Some “Sleeping Beauty” Postings - ve42.co/SBRecPuzzles

The Sleeping Beauty Paradox, Statistics SE - ve42.co/SBPSSE

The Sleeping Beauty Problem, Reddit - ve42.co/SBPReddit

Sleeping Beauty paradox explained, GameFAQs - ve42.co/SBPGameFAQ

The Sleeping Beauty Problem, Physics Forums - ve42.co/SBPPhysicsForums

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Tj Steyn, Meg Noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos, M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin, Jr., Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi.

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Written by Emily Zhang, Derek Muller, Tamar Lichter Blanks
Edited by Fabio Albertelli
Animation by Ivy Tello, Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang

Raindrops arent shaped like raindrops

Veritasium 2023-02-03 | Water breaks up into droplets - this is what it would be like to fall with raindrops.

The stickiest *non-sticky* material

Veritasium 2023-01-28 | For more: youtu.be/vS0TuIPoeBs?t=23

The Stickiest *Non-Sticky* Substance

Veritasium 2023-01-23 | Adhesives based on gecko skin can hold huge weights – without sticking to anything. Head to brilliant.org/Veritasium to start your free trial. The first 200 of you will get 20% off Brilliant’s annual premium subscription.

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Thanks to Dr. Mark Cutkosky, Tony Chen, Amar Hajj-Ahmad, and the rest of the Biomimetics and Dexterous Manipulation Lab at Stanford University for showing us the power of gecko adhesives.

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References:
Russell, A. P., Stark, A. Y., & Higham, T. E. (2019). The integrative biology of gecko adhesion: historical review, current understanding, and grand challenges. Integrative and comparative biology, 59(1), 101-116. – ve42.co/Russell2019

Hajj-Ahmad, A., Suresh, S. A., and Cutkosky, M. R. (June 6, 2021). "Cutting to the Point: Directly Machined Metal Molds for Directional Gecko-Inspired Adhesives." ASME. J. Micro Nano-Manuf. – ve42.co/Hajj-Ahmad2021

Kerst, Capella F., "Gecko inspired adhesives : permanent practical manufacturing, new materials, and applications," PhD Thesis, Stanford University, December 2020. – ve42.co/Kerst2020

Suresh, S.A. "Engineering Gecko-Inspired Adhesives." Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 2020. [Online]. – ve42.co/Suresh2020

Suresh, S.A., Kerst, C.F., Cutkosky, M.R., Hawkes, E.W. "Spatially variant microstructured adhesive with one-way friction." Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 2019. – ve42.co/Suresh2019

Glick, P., Suresh, S.A., Ruffatto III, D., Cutkosky, M.R., Tolley, M.T., and Parness, A. "A soft robotic gripper with gecko-inspired adhesive." Robotics and Automation Letters. 2018. – ve42.co/Glick2018

Christensen, D.L., Hawkes, E.W., Suresh, S.A., Ladenheim, K. and Cutkosky, M.R., "µTugs: Enabling Microrobots to Deliver Macro Forces with Controllable Adhesives," IEEE/ICRA 2015 (preprint). – ve42.co/Christensen2015

Hawkes, E. W., "Applying Dry Adhesives to the Real World," Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 2015. – ve42.co/Hawkes2015

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Meg Noah, Bernard McGee, James Sanger, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi

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Written by Derek Muller & Petr Lebedev
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Ivy Tello
Filmed by Derek Muller & Albert Leung
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 & Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Exec. Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

The ring on a chain trick

Veritasium 2023-01-18 | For the answer: youtu.be/K-Fc08X56R0?t=228

Falling ladders - why does this happen?

Veritasium 2023-01-12 | What happens when a chain ladder lands on a table? Great video and concept by Andy Ruina. Let me know if you want me to post a follow up explaining the answer.

Indestructible coating?!

Veritasium 2022-12-31 | The coating is a polymer sold under the brand name Line-X. More about how it works in the full video here: youtu.be/DWkYRh6OXy8

3 Ways Of Seeing Invisible Air Flow

Veritasium 2022-12-24 | In this lab, they use different flow visualization techniques to help detect contraband, residues, and develop trace particle detection methods. Part of this video was sponsored by Caseta by Lutron. Find out more at casetawireless.com/veritasium

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Thanks to Rich Press and NIST for the great visit.
Thanks to Matt Staymates for taking us around his lab and showing us the fascinating research being done with flow visualization.
You can check out all the cool work going on at NIST here: nist.gov

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Check out these Lutron products:
homedepot.com/p/Lutron-Caseta-Wireless-Smart-Lighting-Dimmer-Switch-and-Remote-Kit-for-Wall-and-Ceiling-Lights-White-P-PKG1W-WH-R/206754146
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homedepot.com/p/Lutron-Caseta-Wireless-Single-Pole-3-Way-Smart-Lighting-Lamp-Dimmer-and-Remote-Kit -White-P-PKG1P-WH-R/206792507

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References:

Staymates, M.E., (2020). My Stay-at-Home Lab Shows How Face Coverings Can Slow the Spread of Disease. NIST. – ve42.co/FaceMaskNIST

Staymates, M. E., et al. (2016). Biomimetic sniffing improves the detection performance of a 3D printed nose of a dog and a commercial trace vapor detector. Scientific reports, 6(1), 1-10. – ve42.co/Staymates2016

NIST. (2022). Surface and Trace Chemical Analysis Group. – ve42.co/NISTgroup

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Bernard McGee, James Sanger, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller and Emily Zhang
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Ivy Tello
Filmed by Derek Muller, Raquel Nuno, Trenton Oliver, and Emily Zhang
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 & Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

Testing the US Military’s Worst Idea

Veritasium 2022-12-21 | An engineer came up with a plan to drop tungsten telephone poles from space - the idea has been seriously considered on multiple occasions, so we tested it. Head to brilliant.org/Veritasium to start your free trial. The first 200 will get 20% off Brilliant's annual premium subscription.

Massive thanks to Archisand for building such a beautiful sandcastle. youtube.com/@GregLeBon

Huge thanks to John and Angie Miller for helping us with securing the shooting location and going above and beyond to make this shoot happen – http://highdesertlocations.com

Thanks to Inland Empire Film Services and the San Bernardino County Film Office for portions of the video shot in the County of San Bernardino.

Massive thanks to Dr David Wright for the interview and providing invaluable guidance during the research for this video.

Here’s a great video about space-based missile defense – ucsusa.org/resources/space-based-missile-defense-not-good-idea

Massive thanks to Adam Savage for being part of this video.

Additional photos from NASA and ESA.

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References:
USAF. (2003). The US Air Force transformation flight plan.

Preston, R., Johnson, D. J., Edwards, S. J., Miller, M. D., & Shipbaugh, C. (2002). Space weapons earth wars. Rand Corporation.

Wright, D., Grego, L., & Gronlund, L. (2005). The physics of space security. A Reference Manual, Cambridge.

DeBlois, B. M., Garwin, R. L., Kemp, R. S., & Marwell, J. C. (2004). Space weapons: crossing the US Rubicon. International Security, 50-84.

Baucom, D. R. (2017). The Rise and Fall of Brilliant Pebbles 1. In United States Military History 1865 to the Present Day (pp. 329-376). Routledge.

Hitchens, T., & Samson, V. (2004). Space-based interceptors: still not a good idea. Georgetown journal of international affairs, 21-29.

National Research Council. (2012). Making sense of ballistic missile defense: An assessment of concepts and systems for US boost-phase missile defense in comparison to other alternatives. National Academies Press.

Borger, J. (2005). Bush likely to back weapons in space. The Guardian, 19.

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Special thanks to: Bernard McGee, James Sanger, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi

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Written by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller, and Emily Zhang
Filmed by Trenton Oliver, Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang, Raquel Nuno, and Eddie Lopez
Animation by Mike Radjabov, Fabio Albertelli, and Jonny Hyman
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Slow Motion Camera: Shawn Sanders and Anthony Corrales
Sandcastle Timelapse by Greg LeBon and Archisand
Phantom rental from Panny Hire LA
Helicopter Pilots: Rick Shuster and Cliff Fleming
Helicopter Safety Officer: Ryan Hosking
FPV Drone Pilots: Sammie Saing and Josh Ewalt
Production Assistants: Roman Bacvic and Eddie Lopez
Intern: Katie Barnshaw
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 and Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

How To Measure The Tiniest Forces In The Universe

Veritasium 2022-12-12 | This lab measures the tiniest forces in the universe. This video is sponsored by Brilliant. You can get started for free, or the first 200 people to sign up via brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription.

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Thanks to Rich Press and NIST for the great visit.
Thanks to Dr. Gordon Shaw for showing us around his lab and teaching us about measuring tiny forces.
You can check out all the cool work going on at NIST here: nist.gov

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References:

Lee, J. (2016). Measuring Tiny Forces With Light. NIST. – ve42.co/Lee2016

Melcher, J., Stirling, J., Guzman, F., Pratt, J. & Shaw, G. (2014). A self-calibrating optomechanical force sensor with femtonewton resolution. Applied Physics Letters. – ve42.co/Melcher2014

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Bernard McGee, James Sanger, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi

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Written by Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Ivy Tello
Filmed by Derek Muller, Trenton Oliver, and Emily Zhang
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 & Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

Inside The Navys Indoor Ocean

Veritasium 2022-12-01 | The US Navy has an indoor ocean that can simulate any wave in the world. This video is sponsored by Brilliant. You can get started for free, or the first 200 people to sign up via brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription.

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Thanks to Kelley Stirling and the Naval Surface Warfare Center, Carderock Division for the visit.
Thanks to Miguel Quintero and Capt. Todd E. Hutchison for talking to us about the important work going on in the Maneuvering and Seakeeping Basin.
Thanks to Dr. Georgy Manucharyan at the University of Washington for his help in understanding ocean waves.

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References:

Webb, P. (2017). Introduction to Oceanography. Chapter 10: Waves. Online OER textbook. – ve42.co/Webb2017
Stewart, R. (2008). Introduction to Physical Oceanography. – ve42.co/Stewart2008
van den Bremer, T. S. & Breivik, Ø. (2018). Stokes drift. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A. – ve42.co/Bremer2017
Monismith, S. (2020). Stokes drift: Theory and experiments. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 884, F1. – ve42.co/Monismith2020
Young, I. R. (1999). Wind Generated Ocean Waves. Elsevier. p. 83. – ve42.co/Young1999
Wright, P. Island Physics. 4.2 Formation of Waves – ve42.co/IslandPhysics
American Bureau of Shipping. (2016). Guidance Notes on Selecting Design Wave by Long Term Stochastic Method. – ve42.co/ABS2016
James, S. & Stull, R. (2019). Wave Characteristics. UBC ATSC 113 - Weather for Sailing, Flying & Snow Sports. – ve42.co/James2019
Garrison, T. (2009). Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science (7th ed). – ve42.co/Garrison2009

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
James Sanger, Louis Lebbos, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller & Emily Zhang
Edited by Fabio Albertelli
Animation by Ivy Tello & Mike Radjabov
Filmed by Derek Muller & Emily Zhang
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 & Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

What’s in a candle flame?

Veritasium 2022-11-23 | In a candle flame there are electrically charged particles, which you can pull apart using an electric field.

The world depends on a collection of strange items. Theyre not cheap

Veritasium 2022-11-19 | This government warehouse keeps our entire society up to standard. Part of this video was sponsored by Google Domains. Take the first step to get online with a domain name from Google Domains - go to domains.google/veritasium to get 20% off your first year. #GoogleDomains

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Thanks to Rich Press and NIST for the great visit.
Thanks to Dr. Steve Choquette, Dr. Ben Place, and Dr. Johanna Camara for teaching us about the world of Standard Reference Materials.
You can check out all the cool work going on at NIST here: nist.gov

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References:

NIST (2022). Standard Reference Materials. – ve42.co/WhyStandard2022

Montgomery, R. & Bercik, I. (2022). NIST Standard Reference Materials 2022 Catalog. – ve42.co/SRMCatalog

Vincent, J. (2022). Made to measure: why we can’t stop quantifying our lives. The Guardian –
ve42.co/Vincent2022

Proffitt, A. (2022). NIST Develops Monkeypox Reference Materials, Sees Growing Role in Outbreak Response. Diagnostics World. – ve42.co/Proffitt2022

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
James Sanger, Louis Lebbos, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller & Emily Zhang
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Ivy Tello & Mike Radjabov
Filmed by Derek Muller, Trenton Oliver, and Emily Zhang
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 & Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

What Happens If A Star Explodes Near The Earth?

Veritasium 2022-11-15 | People have witnessed supernovae for millennia, but what threat do they pose to life on Earth? This video is sponsored by Brilliant. You can get started for free, or the first 200 people to sign up via brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription.

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A massive thanks to Prof. Hans-Thomas Janka for helping us with the physics of supernovae and GRBs. A massive thanks to Prof. Brian Thomas for all of his help with the terrestrial effects of supernovae and GRBs. This video would not have been possible without them. Also thanks to Dr. Luke Barnes for his initial help with the literature search.

Hydrogen bomb vs Supernova fact was taken from this great article by xkcd/Randall Munroe – what-if.xkcd.com/73 (based on the calculation by Andrew Karam, 2002)

Cosmic bubble footage from
https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/news/1000-light-year-wide-bubble-surrounding-earth-source-all-nearby-young-stars

Neutrino driven SN explosion simulations from iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2041-8205/808/2/L42

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References:

Melott, A. et al. (2019). Hypothesis: Muon radiation dose and marine megafaunal extinction at the End-Pliocene supernova. Astrobiology, 19(6), 825-830. – ve42.co/Melott1

Thomas, B. C. et al. (2016). Terrestrial effects of nearby supernovae in the early Pleistocene. The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 826(1), L3 – ve42.co/Thomas1

Melott, A. L., & Thomas, B. C. (2019). From cosmic explosions to terrestrial fires?. The Journal of Geology, 127(4), 475-481. – ve42.co/Melott2

Fields, B. et al. (2019). Near-Earth supernova explosions: Evidence, implications, and opportunities. arXiv preprint arXiv:1903.04589. – ve42.co/Fields1

Thomas, B. C., Atri, D., & Melott, A. L. (2021). Gamma-ray bursts: not so much deadlier than we thought. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 500(2), 1970-1973. – ve42.co/Thomas2

Melott, A. et al. (2004). Did a gamma-ray burst initiate the late Ordovician mass extinction?. International Journal of Astrobiology, 3(1), 55-61. – ve42.co/Melott3

Firestone, R. B. (2014). Observation of 23 supernovae that exploded less than 300 pc from Earth during the past 300 kyr. The Astrophysical Journal, 789(1), 29. – ve42.co/firestone1

Janka, H. T. (2017). Neutrino emission from supernovae. arXiv preprint arXiv:1702.08713. – ve42.co/Janka1

Janka, H. T., & Hillebrandt, W. (1989). Neutrino emission from type II supernovae-an analysis of the spectra. Astronomy and astrophysics, 224, 49-56. – ve42.co/Janka2

Janka, H. T. (2017). Neutrino-driven explosions. arXiv preprint arXiv:1702.08825. – ve42.co/Janka3

Karam, P. A. (2002). Gamma and neutrino radiation dose from gamma ray bursts and nearby supernovae. Health physics, 82(4), 491-499. – ve42.co/Karam1

Melott, A. L., Thomas, et al.. (2017). A supernova at 50 pc: effects on the Earth's atmosphere and biota. The Astrophysical Journal, 840(2), 105. – ve42.co/Melott4

Ludwig, P., et al. (2016). Time-resolved 2-million-year-old supernova activity discovered in Earth’s microfossil record. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(33), 9232-9237. – ve42.co/Ludwig1

Gritschneder, et al. (2011). The supernova triggered formation and enrichment of our solar system. The Astrophysical Journal, 745(1), 22. – ve42.co/Gritschneder1

Motizuki, Y., Takahashi, et al. (2009). An Antarctic ice core recording both supernovae and solar cycles. arXiv preprint arXiv:0902.3446. – ve42.co/Motizuki

Zucker, C. et al. (2022). Star formation near the Sun is driven by expansion of the Local Bubble. Nature, 601(7893), 334-337. – ve42.co/Zucker1

Hirata, K. et al.(1987). Observation of a neutrino burst from the supernova SN1987A. – ve42.co/Hirata1

Hayes, L. A., & Gallagher, P. T. (2022). A Significant Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance Associated with Gamma-Ray Burst GRB 221009A. Research Notes of the AAS, 6(10), 222.

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Special thanks to our Patron supporters:
James Sanger, Louis Lebbos, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi

▀▀▀
Written by Petr Lebedev & Derek Muller
Edited by Fabio Albertelli
Animation by Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, Alex Drakoulis, Ivy Tello, Mike Radjabov, and Charlie Davies
Filmed by Derek Muller
Additional Research by Kovi Rose & Katie Barnshaw
Video/photos supplied by NASA, ESA, Pond5, and Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

The Remarkable Story Behind The Most Important Algorithm Of All Time

Veritasium 2022-11-03 | The Fast Fourier Transform is used everywhere but it has a fascinating origin story that could have ended the nuclear arms race. This video is sponsored by 80,000 Hours. Head to http://80000hours.org/veritasium to sign up for their newsletter and get sent a free copy of their in-depth career guide.

A huge thank you to Dr. Richard Garwin for taking the time to speak with us.
Thanks to Dr. Steve Brunton of the University of Washington for his help with understanding the Fast Fourier Transform.

Thanks to Dr. Cliff Thurber of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Dr. Paul Richards of Columbia University, and Dr. Steven Gibbons of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute for their expertise.

Thanks to Grant Sanderson of 3Blue1Brown for his helpful feedback on the script. His great video on the Fourier Transform is here - youtu.be/spUNpyF58BY

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References:

Kristensen, H.M., Korda, M. (2022). Status of World Nuclear Forces. Federation of American Scientists (FAS). ve42.co/Stockpile2022

Barth, K. H. (1998). Science and politics in early nuclear test ban negotiations. Physics Today, 51(3), 34-39. - ve42.co/Barth1998

Schmalberger, T. (1991). In pursuit of a nuclear test ban treaty - ve42.co/Schmalberger1991

Bowers, D., & Selby, N. D. (2009). Forensic seismology and the comprehensive nuclear-test-ban treaty. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 37, 209-236 - ve42.co/Bowers2009

Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS). (2022). How Often Do Earthquakes Occur? ve42.co/IRIS2022

Kimball, D. (2022). The Nuclear Testing Tally. Arms Control Association. ve42.co/TestTally2022

Kværna, T., & Ringdal, F. (2013). Detection capability of the seismic network of the International Monitoring System for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 103(2A), 759-772 - ve42.co/Kvrna2013

Sykes, L. R., & Evernden, J. F. (1982). The verification of a comprehensive nuclear test ban. Scientific American, 247(4), 47-55 - ve42.co/Sykes1982

Peterson, J., & Hutt, C. R. (2014). World-wide standardized seismograph network: a data users guide (p. 82). US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey. - ve42.co/Peterson2014

Richards, P. G., & Kim, W. Y. (2009). Monitoring for nuclear explosions. Scientific American, 300(3), 70-77 - ve42.co/Richards2009

Jacobsen, L. L., Fedorova, I., & Lajus, J. (2021). The seismograph as a diplomatic object: The Soviet–American exchange of instruments, 1958–1964. Centaurus, 63(2), 277-295 - ve42.co/Jacobsen2021

Schwartz S. I. (1998). The Hidden Costs Of Our Nuclear Arsenal: Overview Of Project Findings. The Brookings Institution - ve42.co/Schwartz1998

Ricón, J.L. (2016). The Soviet Union: Military Spending. Nintil - ve42.co/Nintil2016

Heideman, M. T., Johnson, D. H., & Burrus, C. S. (1985). Gauss and the history of the fast Fourier transform. Archive for history of exact sciences, 265-277 - ve42.co/Heideman1985

Ford, D. (2004). Richard Garwin - Session IV. American Institute of Physics (AIP). - ve42.co/Ford2004

Aaserud, F. (1986). Richard Garwin - Session I. American Institute of Physics (AIP). - ve42.co/Aaserud1986

Goldstein, A. (1997). James W. Cooley, an oral history. IEEE History Center, Piscataway, NJ, USA - ve42.co/Goldstein1997

Cooley, J., Garwin, R., Rader, C., Bogert, B., & Stockham, T. (1969). The 1968 Arden House workshop on fast Fourier transform processing. IEEE Transactions on Audio and Electroacoustics, 17(2), 66-76 - ve42.co/Cooley1969

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters:
Louis Lebbos, Elliot MIller, RayJ Johnson, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

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Written by Derek Muller & Felicity Nelson
Filmed by Derek Muller & Raquel Nuno
Animation by Ivy Tello, Jakub Misiek, Alex Drakoulis, and Fabio Albertelli
Edited by Albert Leung & Derek Muller
Research Assistant: Katie Barnshaw
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 and Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

Why do we launch rockets from Florida?

Veritasium 2022-10-06 | I always thought Florida seemed like a terrible place to launch anything from.

How Dangerous is a Penny Dropped From a Skyscraper?

Veritasium 2022-10-01 | This video is sponsored by Brilliant. You can get started for free, or the first 200 people to sign up via brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription. Check out Adam Savage's video: youtu.be/h_zytOcMwys

A massive thanks to Adam Savage and the whole Tested Crew – especially Kristen Lomasney, Ryan Kiser, and Joey Fameli. Thank you so much for coming out to the desert with us, and for inviting us to your cave! Check out the video we made with them on their channel – youtu.be/h_zytOcMwys

Another huge thanks to iFly Ontario for letting us shoot in your amazing windtunnel. Special thanks to Diana Rios, Treasa Telle, Michelle Brumley for having us and Anthony Jones, Torrell Henderson and Nate Roth for being great instructors. iFly run STEM education trips, where you can experience terminal velocity first hand – iflyworld.com/programs/stem-field-trips

Thanks to Inland Empire Film Services and the San Bernardino County Film Office for portions of the video shot in the County of San Bernardino.

The raindrop video is from Alistair McClymont’s gorgeous artwork “Raindrop” – alistairmcclymont.com/artwork/raindrop

Video of the raindrop breaking apart is from the coolest paper i’ve read in a while – Villermaux, E., & Bossa, B. (2009). Single-drop fragmentation determines size distribution of raindrops. Nature physics, 5(9), 697-702. – ve42.co/Villermaux

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References:
Altair. (2019). Digital Debunking: Could a Penny Dropped Off the Top of the Empire State Building Actually Kill You? - ve42.co/Altair2019

Braeunig, R.A. Atmosphere Properties. - ve42.co/AtmosProp

The Guardian. (2014). Brutal winter weather brings new challenge: ice falling from skyscrapers - ve42.co/WTCicicle

NASA. (2018). The Apollo 15 Hammer-Feather Drop - ve42.co/NASAmoondrop

Red Bull Stratos - ve42.co/RBStratos

Quealy, K., Sanger-KatzIn, M. (2015). In Other Countries, You’re as Likely to Be Killed by a Falling Object as by a Gun. New York Times. - ve42.co/NYTFallingObject

National Safety Council. (2022). Struck by Objects. - ve42.co/NSCStruck

Williams, A. (2019). What are your chances of being killed by hail in the US? - ve42.co/Williams2019

NewScientist. (2021). Can bullets fired upwards cause injuries when they return to earth? - ve42.co/CelebratoryGunFire

Chambers, J. (2020). Meet the Flechette – the Deadliest Weapon of World War I? - ve42.co/Flechette

Wikipedia. Lazy Dog (bomb). - ve42.co/LazyDog

Gläser, N., Kneubuehl, B. P., Zuber, S., Axmann, S., Ketterer, T., Thali, M. J., & Bolliger, S. A. (2011). Biomechanical examination of blunt trauma due to baseball bat blows to the head. Journal of Forensic Biomechanics, 2 - ve42.co/Glaser2011

Yoganandan, N., Pintar, F. A., SANCES JR, A. N. T. H. O. N. Y., Walsh, P. R., Ewing, C. L., Thomas, D. J., & Snyder, R. G. (1995). Biomechanics of skull fracture. Journal of neurotrauma, 12(4), 659-668.

New York Times. (2014). Falling Tape Measure Kills Man at Jersey City Construction Site - The New York Times - ve42.co/NYTTapeMeasure

IMDb. (2006). "MythBusters" Bullets Fired Up (TV Episode). - ve42.co/MBgunfire

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Special thanks to: Elliot MIller, Louis Lebbos, RayJ Johnson, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Nathan Lanza, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Robert Blum, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

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Written by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller, and Emily Zhang
Filmed by Derek Muller, Trenton Oliver, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang, Raquel Nuno and Eddie Lopez
Animation by Ivy Tello, Mike Radjabov, Fabio Albertelli, and Jakub Misiek
Edited by Trenton Oliver and Derek Muller
FPV Drone Pilots: Sammie Saing and Josh Ewalt
Slow Motion Camera: Shawn Sanders and Anthony Corrales
Phantom slow motion camera & lenses provided by Panny Hire L.A
Helicopter Pilots: Rick Shuster and Cliff Fleming
Helicopter Safety Officer: Ryan Hosking
Production Assistants: Roman Bacvic and Eddie Lopez
Research Assistant: Katie Barnshaw
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 and Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

Worlds Highest Jumping Robot

Veritasium 2022-08-31 | This tiny robot can jump higher than anything else in the world. This video is sponsored by Brilliant. The first 200 people to sign up via brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription.

Huge thanks to Dr. Elliot Hawkes and the rest of the group - Charles Xiao, Chris Keeley, Dr. Morgan Pope, and Dr. Günter Niemeyer - for having us at UCSB and showing us their high-flying jumper. This work was partially supported by an Early Career Faculty Grant from NASA’s Space Technology Research Grants Program.

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References:

Hawkes, E.W., Xiao, C., Peloquin, R., Keeley, C., Begley, M.R., Pope, M.T., & Niemeyer, G. (2022). Engineered jumpers overcome biological limits via work multiplication. Nature, 604, 657-661. – rdcu.be/cMePc
ve42.co/Hawkes2022
Fernandez, S. (2022). Hitting New Heights. The Current, UC Santa Barbara. – ve42.co/Fernandez2022
Bushwick, S. (2022). Record-Breaking Jumping Robot Can Leap a 10-Story Building. Engineering, Scientific American. – ve42.co/Bushwick2022
Mack, E. (2022). This Robot Can Leap Nine Stories in One Jump, Will Go Even Higher on Moon. Science, CNET. – ve42.co/Mack2022
Ashby, M. (2020). Materials Selection in Mechanical Design (4th edition). Elsevier.
Jumping robot leaps to record heights. Nature Video - ve42.co/NatureJumper
MultiMo-Bat Robot - ve42.co/MultiMoBat
Galago Jump - ve42.co/GalagoJump
Slingshot Spider - ve42.co/SlingshotSpider

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: RayJ Johnson, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Nathan Lanza, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Robert Blum, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

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Written by Emily Zhang and Derek Muller
Filmed by Derek Muller and Trenton Oliver
Animation by Mike Radjabov and Ivy Tello
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 and Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

The 4 things it takes to be an expert

Veritasium 2022-08-02 | Which experts have real expertise? This video is sponsored by Brilliant. The first 200 people to sign up via brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription.

Thanks to chess24.com and Chessable for the clip of Magnus.

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Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. (1973). Perception in chess. Cognitive psychology, 4(1), 55-81. – ve42.co/chess1

Calderwood, R., Klein, G. A., & Crandall, B. W. (1988). Time pressure, skill, and move quality in chess. The American Journal of Psychology, 481-493. – ve42.co/chess2

Hogarth, R. M., Lejarraga, T., & Soyer, E. (2015). The two settings of kind and wicked learning environments. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(5), 379-385. – ve42.co/Hogarth

Ægisdóttir, S., White, M. J., Spengler, P. M., Maugherman, A. S., Anderson, L. A., Cook, R. S., ... & Rush, J. D. (2006). The meta-analysis of clinical judgment project: Fifty-six years of accumulated research on clinical versus statistical prediction. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(3), 341-382. – ve42.co/anderson1

Ericsson, K. A. (2015). Acquisition and maintenance of medical expertise: a perspective from the expert-performance approach with deliberate practice. Academic Medicine, 90(11), 1471-1486. – ve42.co/anderson2

Goldberg, S. B., Rousmaniere, T., Miller, S. D., Whipple, J., Nielsen, S. L., Hoyt, W. T., & Wampold, B. E. (2016). Do psychotherapists improve with time and experience? A longitudinal analysis of outcomes in a clinical setting. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(1), 1. – ve42.co/goldberg1

Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363. – ve42.co/anderson3

Egan, D. E., & Schwartz, B. J. (1979). Chunking in recall of symbolic drawings. Memory & Cognition, 7(2), 149-158. – ve42.co/chunking1

Tetlock, P. E. (2017). Expert political judgment. In Expert Political Judgment. Princeton University Press. – ve42.co/Tetlock

Melton, R. S. (1952). A comparison of clinical and actuarial methods of prediction with an assessment of the relative accuracy of different clinicians. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Minnesota.

Meehl, E. P. (1954). Clinical versus Statistical Prediction: A Theoretical Analysis and a Review of the Evidence. University of Minnesota Press. – ve42.co/Meehl1954

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. – ve42.co/Kahneman

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: RayJ Johnson, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, Julian Lee, Inconcision, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Timothy O’Brien, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

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Written by Derek Muller and Petr Lebedev
Animation by Ivy Tello and Fabio Albertelli
Filmed by Derek Muller and Raquel Nuno
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound (ve42.co/music)
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

The Man Who Killed Millions and Saved Billions

Veritasium 2022-07-22 | Fritz Haber is the scientist who arguably most transformed the world. Part of this video is sponsored by Wren. Offset your carbon footprint on Wren: wren.co/start/veritasium1. For the first 100 people who sign up, I will personally pay for the first month of your subscription!

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A huge thanks to Dan Charles for writing a fantastic biography of Fritz Haber, for taking the time to talk to us about it, and providing valuable feedback. This video would not be what it is without his contributions. http://site.danielcharles.us ve42.co/Charles

Thanks to Tom de Prinse from Explosions and Fire for helping us with the chemistry of explosives. If you like explosions and/or fire, you will love his channel. youtube.com/c/ExplosionsFire2

Thanks to Michael Kuiper of CSIRO for the animation of the composition of air - youtube.com/watch?v=j9JvX58aRfg

Special thanks to Sonya Pemberton, Karl Kruszelnicki, Mary Dobbie, Olivia McRae, and the patreon supporters for giving us feedback on the earlier version of this video.

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References:

The primary reference used is Vaclav Smil’s excellent book, Enriching The Earth –
Smil, V. (2004). Enriching the earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the transformation of world food production. MIT press. – ve42.co/Smil

Mastermind: The Rise and Fall of Fritz Haber, the Nobel Laureate Who Launched the Age of Chemical Warfare, by Dan Charles – ve42.co/Charles

Stoltzenberg, D. (2004). Fritz Haber: Chemist, Nobel Laureate, German, Jew. Chemical Heritage Foundation. – ve42.co/Stoltzenberg

Postgate, J. R. (1982). The fundamentals of nitrogen fixation. CUP Archive. – ve42.co/postgate

Miles, A. G. (1992). Biological nitrogen fixation. – ve42.co/Miles

Friedrich, B., & Hoffmann, D. (2017). Clara Immerwahr: A life in the shadow of Fritz Haber. In One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences(pp. 45-67). Springer, Cham. – ve42.co/Friedrich2017

Da Silva, G. (2020). What is ammonium nitrate, the chemical that exploded in Beirut. Sci Am, 5. – ve42.co/Silva

Rodrigues, P., & Micael, J. (2021). The importance of guano birds to the Inca Empire and the first conservation measures implemented by humans. – ve42.co/rodrigues

Allison, F. E. (1957). Nitrogen and soil fertility. Soil, the, 85-94. – ve42.co/Allison

Crookes, W. (1898). Address of the President before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Bristol, 1898. Science, 8(200), 561-575. – ve42.co/Crookes

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: RayJ Johnson, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, Julian Lee, Inconcision, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Timothy O’Brien, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

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Written by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller, Felicity Nelson and Kovi Rose
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Jakub Mistek, Fabio Albertelli, Ivy Tello, Alex Drakoulis, Nils Ramses Kullack, and Charlie Davies
SFX by Shaun Clifford
Filmed by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller and Raquel Nuno
Photo of nitrogen deficiency in rice from ve42.co/rice
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound: ve42.co/music

The Riddle That Seems Impossible Even If You Know The Answer

Veritasium 2022-06-30 | The 100 Prisoners Riddle feels completely impossible even once you know the answer. This video is sponsored by Brilliant. The first 200 people to sign up via brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription.

Special thanks to Destin of Smarter Every Day (ve42.co/SED), Toby of Tibees (ve42.co/Tibees), and Jabril of Jabrils (ve42.co/Jabrils) for taking the time to think about this mind bending riddle.

Huge thanks to Luke West for building plots and for his help with the math.
Huge thanks to Dr. Eugene Curtin and Dr. Max Warshauer for their great article on the problem and taking the time to help us understand it: ve42.co/CurtinWarshauer
Thanks to Dr. John Baez for his help with finding alternate ways to do the calculations.
Thanks to Simon Pampena for his input and analysis.

Other 100 Prisoners Riddle videos:
minutephysics: youtube.com/watch?v=C5-I0bAuEUE
Vsauce2: youtube.com/watch?v=kOnEEeHZp94
Stand-up Maths: youtube.com/watch?v=a1DUUnhk3uE
TED-Ed: youtube.com/watch?v=vIdStMTgNl0

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References:
Original paper: Gál, A., & Miltersen, P.B. (2003). The Cell Probe Complexity of Succinct Data Structures. BRICS, Department of Computer Science, University of Aarhus. All rights reserved. – ve42.co/GalMiltersen
Winkler, P. (2006). Seven Puzzles You Think You Must Not Have Heard Correctly. – ve42.co/Winkler2006
The 100 Prisoners Problem – ve42.co/100PWiki
Golomb, S. & Gaal, P. (1998). On the Number of Permutations on n Objects with Greatest Cycle Length k. Advances in Applied Mathematics, 20(1), 98-107. – ve42.co/Golomb1998
Lamb, E. (2012). Puzzling Prisoners Presented to Promote North America's Only Museum of Math. Observations, Scientific American. – ve42.co/Lamb2012
Permutations – ve42.co/PermutationsWiki
Probability that a random permutation of n elements has a cycle of length k greater than n/2, Math SE. – ve42.co/BaezProbSE
Counting Cycle Structures in Sn, Math SE. – ve42.co/CountCyclesSE
What is the distribution of cycle lengths in derangements? In particular, expected longest cycle, Math SE. – ve42.co/JorikiSE
The Manim Community Developers. (2021). Manim - Mathematical Animation Framework (Version v0.13.1). – https://www.manim.community/

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: RayJ Johnson, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, Julian Lee, Inconcision, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Timothy O’Brien, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

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Written by Derek Muller and Emily Zhang
Filmed by Derek Muller and Petr Lebedev
Animation by Ivy Tello and Jesús Rascón
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound and Jonny Hyman
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

The Absurd Search For Dark Matter

Veritasium 2022-06-02 | This video is sponsored by Brilliant. The first 200 people to sign up via brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription. Astronomers think there should be 5 times as much dark matter as ordinary matter – a shadow universe that makes up most of the mass in the universe. But after decades of trying, no experiments have found any trace of dark matter – except one.

A massive thanks to the wonderful people at the ARC Centre of Excellence for Dark Matter Physics centredarkmatter.org for showing us around and being on camera – Fleur Morrison, A/Prof Phillip Urquijo, Prof Elisabetta Barberio, Madeleine Zurowski and Grace Lawrence.
Thanks to Leo Fincher-Johnson and everyone at the Stawell gold mine for having us.
Massive thanks to Prof. Geraint Lewis – Geraint has been Veritasium’s go-to expert for anything astrophysics and cosmology related. Please check out his website, and buy his books, they’re great – geraintflewis.com
Thanks to Prof. Timothy Tait for the help to make sure we got the science right.
Thanks to Ingo Berg for illustrating the effect of dark matter on the rotation of a galaxy https://beltoforion.de/en/spiral_galaxy_renderer/spiral-galaxy-renderer.html

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Galaxy cluster simulation from IllustrisTNG – tng-project.org
Venn Diagram of Dark Matter from Tim Tait – ve42.co/venn
The Bullet Cluster Image from Magellan, Hubble and Chandra telescopes – ve42.co/BC2
Bullet cluster animation from Andrew Robertson / Institute for Computational Cosmology / Durham University – ve42.co/BC3

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Bernabei, R., Belli, P., Cappella, F., Cerulli, R., Dai, C. J., d’Angelo, A., ... & Ye, Z. P. (2008). First results from DAMA/LIBRA and the combined results with DAMA/NaI. The European Physical Journal C, 56(3), 333-355. – ve42.co/DAMA2008

Zwicky, F. (1933). Die rotverschiebung von extragalaktischen nebeln. Helvetica physica acta, 6, 110-127. – ve42.co/Zwicky1

Zwicky, F. (1937). On the Masses of Nebulae and of Clusters of Nebulae. The Astrophysical Journal, 86, 217. – ve42.co/Zwicky2

Rubin, V. C., & Ford Jr, W. K. (1970). Rotation of the Andromeda nebula from a spectroscopic survey of emission regions. The Astrophysical Journal, 159, 379. – ve42.co/Rubin1

Bosma, A., & Van der Kruit, P. C. (1979). The local mass-to-light ratio in spiral galaxies. Astronomy and Astrophysics, 79, 281-286. – ve42.co/Bosma1

Milgrom, M. (1983). A modification of the Newtonian dynamics as a possible alternative to the hidden mass hypothesis. The Astrophysical Journal, 270, 365-370. – ve42.co/mond1

Sanders, R. H., & McGaugh, S. S. (2002). Modified Newtonian dynamics as an alternative to dark matter. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 40(1), 263-317. – ve42.co/Mond2

M. Markevitch; A. H. Gonzalez; D. Clowe; A. Vikhlinin; L. David; W. Forman; C. Jones; S. Murray & W. Tucker (2004). "Direct constraints on the dark matter self-interaction cross-section from the merging galaxy cluster 1E0657-56". Astrophys. J. 606 (2): 819–824. – ve42.co/BC1

Great website about the CMB – http://background.uchicago.edu/~whu/intermediate/driving2.html

Galli, S., Iocco, F., Bertone, G., & Melchiorri, A. (2009). CMB constraints on dark matter models with large annihilation cross section. Physical Review D, 80(2), 023505. – ve42.co/CMB1

Antonello, M., Barberio, E., Baroncelli, T., Benziger, J., Bignell, L. J., Bolognino, I., ... & Xu, J. (2019). The SABRE project and the SABRE Proof-of-Principle. The European Physical Journal C, 79(4), 1-8. – ve42.co/SABRE1

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Inconcision, Kelly Snook, TTST, Ross McCawley, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

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Written by Derek Muller and Petr Lebedev
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Ivy Tello and Mike Radjabov
Filmed by Derek Muller and Petr Lebedev
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Image
B-roll supplied by Stawell Gold Mine
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

How did they actually take this picture? (Very Long Baseline Interferometry)

Veritasium 2022-05-12 | This is an image of the supermassive black hole, Sagittarius A*, at the center of our Milky Way galaxy.
Visit kiwico.com/veritasium30 to get 30% off your first month of any crate!

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Image of Sgr A* from EHT collaboration
Event Horizon Telescope collaboration: ve42.co/EHT

Animations from The Relativistic Astrophysics group, Institute for Theoretical Physics, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt. Massive thanks to Prof. Luciano Rezzolla, Dr Christian Fromm and Dr Alejandro Cruz-Osorio.

A huge thanks to Prof. Peter Tuthill and Dr Manisha Caleb for feedback on earlier versions of this video and helping explain VLBI.

Great video by Thatcher Chamberlin about VLBI here – youtu.be/Y8rAHTvpJbk

Animations and simulations with English text:
L. R. Weih & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
youtu.be/jvftAadCFRI

Video of stars going around Sgr A* from European Southern Observatory
eso.org/public/videos/eso1825e

Video zooming into the center of our galaxy from European Southern Observatory
youtube.com/watch?v=dXAU0gzsPOw

Video of observation of M87 courtesy of:
C. M. Fromm, Y. Mizuno & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
youtu.be/meOKmzhTcIY

Video of observation of SgrA* courtesy of
C. M. Fromm, Y. Mizuno & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
Z. Younsi (University College London)
youtu.be/VnsZj9RvhFU

Video of telescopes in the array 2017:
C. M. Fromm & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
youtu.be/Ame7fzBuFnk

Animations and simulations (no text):
L. R. Weih & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
youtu.be/XmvpKFSvB7A

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Inconcision, Kelly Snook, TTST, Ross McCawley, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

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Written by Derek Muller
Animation by Ivy Tello, Mike Radjabov, Maria Raykova
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Filmed by Petr Lebedev

How Electricity Actually Works

Veritasium 2022-04-29 | This video is sponsored by Brilliant. The first 200 people to sign up via brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription.

Special thanks to:
Bruce Sherwood, Ruth Chabay, Aaron Titus, and Steve Spicklemore
matterandinteractions.org
VPython simulation: http://tinyurl.com/SurfaceCharge

Thanks to Ansys for help with the simulations: ansys.com/products/electronics/ansys-hfss

Huge thanks to Richard Abbott from Caltech for all his modeling

Electrical Engineering YouTubers:
Electroboom: youtube.com/c/Electroboom
Alpha Phoenix: youtube.com/c/AlphaPhoenixChannel
eevblog: youtube.com/c/EevblogDave
Ben Watson: youtube.com/channel/UCgZUVIEtBnnBpFWJuxl_E5g
Big Clive: youtube.com/c/Bigclive
Z Y: youtube.com/user/ZongyiYang
NYU Quantum Technology Lab
youtube.com/channel/UCk7io8SN3ZwKvkpnMCbIGsA
Dr. Ben Miles
youtube.com/channel/UCUeZBocfxALSUdOgNJB5ySA
Further analysis of the large circuit is available here: ve42.co/bigcircuit

Special thanks to Dr Geraint Lewis for bringing up this question in the first place and discussing it with us. Check out his and Dr Chris Ferrie’s new book here: ve42.co/Universe2021

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References:
A great video about the Poynting vector by the Science Asylum: youtu.be/C7tQJ42nGno

Sefton, I. M. (2002). Understanding electricity and circuits: What the text books don’t tell you. In Science Teachers’ Workshop. -- ve42.co/Sefton

Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., & Sands, M. (1965). The feynman lectures on physics; vol. Ii, chapter 27. American Journal of Physics, 33(9), 750-752. -- ve42.co/Feynman27

Hunt, B. J. (2005). The Maxwellians. Cornell University Press.

Müller, R. (2012). A semiquantitative treatment of surface charges in DC circuits. American Journal of Physics, 80(9), 782-788. -- ve42.co/Muller2012

Galili, I., & Goihbarg, E. (2005). Energy transfer in electrical circuits: A qualitative account. American journal of physics, 73(2), 141-144. -- ve42.co/Galili2004

Deno, D. W. (1976). Transmission line fields. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, 95(5), 1600-1611. -- ve42.co/Deno76

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Inconcision, Kelly Snook, TTST, Ross McCawley, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller
Edited by Derek Muller
Filmed by Trenton Oliver and Petr Lebedev
Animation by Mike Radjabov and Ivy Tello
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound and Jonny Hyman
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

The Man Who Accidentally Killed The Most People In History

Veritasium 2022-04-22 | One scientist caused two environmental disasters and the deaths of millions. A part of this video is sponsored by Wren. Offset your carbon footprint on Wren: wren.co/start/veritasium. For the first 100 people who sign up, I will personally pay for the first month of your subscription!

Massive thanks to Prof. Francois Tissot for suggesting we make a video on the topic of isotope geochemistry. Huge thanks to Prof. Bruce Lanphear for consulting with us on lead and cardiovascular diseases. Thanks to the Caltech Archives for the audio of Patterson’s interview. Thanks to Vincent Mai for lending us your Snatoms kit. Thanks to Rayner Moss for the help with the fire-piston.

Patterson’s 1995 interview audio courtesy of the Archives, California Institute of Technology.

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Other great resources you should check out:
Bill Bryson has a chapter in his fantastic “A Short History of Nearly Everything”
Radiolab have a wonderful podcast: https://www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts/...
Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey has a wonderful episode – S1E7 which does a great job of telling the story of Clair Patterson
A fantastic Mental floss article – https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/9...

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References:

Much of the lead-crime hypothesis data is from Rick Nevin’s work – ricknevin.com

WHO factsheet on lead poisoning – https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sh...

WHO press release about the end of leaded gasoline https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/08/...

UNICEF report – ve42.co/UNICEF

Needleman, H. (2004). Lead poisoning. Annu. Rev. Med., 55, 209-222. ve42.co/Needleman1

Needleman, H. L. (1991). Human lead exposure. CRC Press. ve42.co/Needleman2

Needleman, H. L. et al. (1979). Deficits in psychologic and classroom performance of children with elevated dentine lead levels. New England journal of medicine, 300(13), 689-695. – ve42.co/Needleman3

Needleman, H. L. et al. (1996). Bone lead levels and delinquent behavior. Jama, 275(5), 363-369. ve42.co/Needleman4

Kovarik, W. J. (1993). The ethyl controversy: the news media and the public health debate over leaded gasoline, 1924-1926 ve42.co/Kovarik2

Edelmann, F. T. (2016). The life and legacy of Thomas Midgley Jr. In Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania ve42.co/Edelmann

More, A. F. et al. (2017). Next‐generation ice core technology reveals true minimum natural levels of lead (Pb) in the atmosphere: Insights from the Black Death. GeoHealth, 1(4), 211-219. ve42.co/More1

McFarland, M. J., et al. (2022). PNAS 119(11), e2118631119. ve42.co/McFarland

Kovarik, W. (2005). Ethyl-leaded gasoline. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, 11(4), 384-397. ve42.co/Kovarik3

Nevin, R. (2007). Understanding international crime trends: the legacy of preschool lead exposure. Environmental research, 104(3), 315-336. – ve42.co/Nevin2007

Ericson, J. E., et al. (1979). Skeletal concentrations of lead in ancient Peruvians. New England Journal of Medicine, 300(17), 946-951. – ve42.co/Ericson1

Patterson, Claire. The Isotopic Composition of Trace Quantities of Lead and Calcium ve42.co/Patterson1

Boutron, C. F., & Patterson, C. C. (1986). Lead concentration changes in Antarctic ice during the Wisconsin/Holocene transition. Nature, 323(6085), 222-225. – ve42.co/Boulton1

Patterson, C. (1956). Age of meteorites and the earth. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 10(4), 230-237. – ve42.co/Patterson2

Lanphear, B. P. et al (2018). Low-level lead exposure and mortality in US adults: a population-based cohort study. The Lancet Public Health, 3(4), e177-e184. – ve42.co/Lanphear1

Schaule, B. K., & Patterson, C. C. (1981). Lead concentrations in the northeast Pacific: evidence for global anthropogenic perturbations. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 54(1), 97-116. – ve42.co/Schaule1

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Inconcision, Kelly Snook, TTST, Ross McCawley, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

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Written by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Chris Stewart, and Katie Barnshaw
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Petr Lebedev
Animation by Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, Ivy Tello, Mike Radjabov, and Caleb Worcester
SFX by Shaun Clifford
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

How Horses Save Humans From Snakebites

Veritasium 2022-03-22 | This video is sponsored by Brilliant. The first 200 people to sign up via brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription. To make antivenom, you first need to collect venom from the world’s most deadly snakes.

Huge thanks to the Australian Reptile Park for having us over to film – special thanks to Zac Bower for milking all of these snakes for us and Caitlin Vine for organizing the shoot. Absolute legends. https://www.reptilepark.com.au

Huge thanks to Dr Timothy Jackson from the Australian Venom Research Unit for answering our questions, and fact checking the script. This video would not have been the same without you.

Thanks to Seqirus Australia for providing B-roll footage of the horses and the antivenom production.

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References:
Calmette, A. (1896). Le venin des serpents: Physiologie de l'envenimation, traitement des morsures venimeuses par le sérum des animaux vaccinés. Paris: Société d'éditions scientifiques.

Broad, A. J., Sutherland, S. K., & Coulter, A. R. (1979). The lethality in mice of dangerous Australian and other snake venom. Toxicon, 17(6), 661-664. – ve42.co/Broad79

WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization. (2016). WHO guidelines for the production, control and regulation of snake antivenom immunoglobulins. Geneve, Switzerland. – ve42.co/WHO2016

Calmette, A. (1896). The treatment of animals poisoned with snake venom by the injection of antivenomous serum. British medical journal, 2(1859), 399. – ve42.co/Calmette1896

Hawgood, B. J. (1999). Doctor Albert Calmette 1863–1933: founder of antivenomous serotherapy and of antituberculous BCG vaccination. Toxicon, 37(9), 1241-1258. – ve42.co/Hawgood99

Pucca, M. B., Cerni, F. A., Janke, R., Bermúdez-Méndez, E., Ledsgaard, L., Barbosa, J. E., & Laustsen, A. H. (2019). History of envenoming therapy and current perspectives. Frontiers in immunology, 1598. – ve42.co/Pucca19

Kang, T. S., Georgieva, D., Genov, N., Murakami, M. T., Sinha, M., Kumar, R. P., ... & Kini, R. M. (2011). Enzymatic toxins from snake venom: structural characterization and mechanism of catalysis. The FEBS journal, 278(23), 4544-4576. – ve42.co/Kang2011

Hawgood, B. J. (2007). Albert Calmette (1863–1933) and Camille Guerin (1872–1961): the C and G of BCG vaccine. Journal of medical biography, 15(3), 139-146. – ve42.co/Hawgood2007

Vonk, F. J., Admiraal, J. F., Jackson, K., Reshef, R., de Bakker, M. A., Vanderschoot, K., ... & Richardson, M. K. (2008). Evolutionary origin and development of snake fangs. Nature, 454(7204), 630-633. – ve42.co/vonk2008

Bochner, R. (2016). Paths to the discovery of antivenom serotherapy in France. Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases, 22. – ve42.co/Bochner2016

Young, B. A., Herzog, F., Friedel, P., Rammensee, S., Bausch, A., & van Hemmen, J. L. (2011). Tears of venom: hydrodynamics of reptilian envenomation. Physical review letters, 106(19), 198103. – ve42.co/Young2011

Madras Medical Journal, Volume Second, July-December 1870. Page 355

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Inconcision, Kelly Snook, TTST, Ross McCawley, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

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Written by Petr Lebedev and Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Jason Tran and Petr Lebedev
Animation by Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, Ivy Tello and Mike Radjabov.
Molecule animation by Reciprocal Space – https://www.reciprocal.space
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Image
B-roll supplied by Seqirus Australia
Music from Epidemic Sound and Jonny Hyman
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

Future Computers Will Be Radically Different (Analog Computing)

Veritasium 2022-03-01 | Visit brilliant.org/Veritasium to get started learning STEM for free, and the first 200 people will get 20% off their annual premium subscription. Digital computers have served us well for decades, but the rise of artificial intelligence demands a totally new kind of computer: analog.

Thanks to Mike Henry and everyone at Mythic for the analog computing tour! mythic-ai.com
Thanks to Dr. Bernd Ulmann, who created The Analog Thing and taught us how to use it. the-analog-thing.org
Moore’s Law was filmed at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, CA.
Welch Labs’ ALVINN video: youtube.com/watch?v=H0igiP6Hg1k

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References:
Crevier, D. (1993). AI: The Tumultuous History Of The Search For Artificial Intelligence. Basic Books. – ve42.co/Crevier1993
Valiant, L. (2013). Probably Approximately Correct. HarperCollins. – ve42.co/Valiant2013
Rosenblatt, F. (1958). The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model for Information Storage and Organization in the Brain. Psychological Review, 65(6), 386-408. – ve42.co/Rosenblatt1958
NEW NAVY DEVICE LEARNS BY DOING; Psychologist Shows Embryo of Computer Designed to Read and Grow Wiser (1958). The New York Times, p. 25. – ve42.co/NYT1958
Mason, H., Stewart, D., and Gill, B. (1958). Rival. The New Yorker, p. 45. – ve42.co/Mason1958
Alvinn driving NavLab footage – ve42.co/NavLab
Pomerleau, D. (1989). ALVINN: An Autonomous Land Vehicle In a Neural Network. NeurIPS, (2)1, 305-313. – ve42.co/Pomerleau1989
ImageNet website – ve42.co/ImageNet
Russakovsky, O., Deng, J. et al. (2015). ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge. – ve42.co/ImageNetChallenge
AlexNet Paper: Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., Hinton, G. (2012). ImageNet Classification with Deep Convolutional Neural Networks. NeurIPS, (25)1, 1097-1105. – ve42.co/AlexNet
Karpathy, A. (2014). Blog post: What I learned from competing against a ConvNet on ImageNet. – ve42.co/Karpathy2014
Fick, D. (2018). Blog post: Mythic @ Hot Chips 2018. – ve42.co/MythicBlog
Jin, Y. & Lee, B. (2019). 2.2 Basic operations of flash memory. Advances in Computers, 114, 1-69. – ve42.co/Jin2019
Demler, M. (2018). Mythic Multiplies in a Flash. The Microprocessor Report. – ve42.co/Demler2018
Aspinity (2021). Blog post: 5 Myths About AnalogML. – ve42.co/Aspinity
Wright, L. et al. (2022). Deep physical neural networks trained with backpropagation. Nature, 601, 49–555. – ve42.co/Wright2022
Waldrop, M. M. (2016). The chips are down for Moore’s law. Nature, 530, 144–147. – ve42.co/Waldrop2016

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Kelly Snook, TTST, Ross McCawley, Balkrishna Heroor, 65square.com, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller, Stephen Welch, and Emily Zhang
Filmed by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang
Animation by Ivy Tello, Mike Radjabov, and Stephen Welch
Edited by Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

The Most Powerful Computers Youve Never Heard Of

Veritasium 2021-12-21 | Analog computers were the most powerful computers for thousands of years, relegated to obscurity by the digital revolution. This video is sponsored by Brilliant. The first 200 people to sign up via brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription.

Thanks to Scott Wiedemann for the lego computer instructions – youtube.com/watch?v=5X_Ft4YR_wU

Antikythera Archive & Animations ©2005-2020 Images First Ltd. youtube.com/watch?v=1ebB0tyrMa8 "The Antikythera Cosmos" (2021) follows the latest developments from the UCL Antikythera Research Team as they recreate a dazzling display of the ancient Greek Cosmos at the front of the Antikythera Mechanism.

Tides video from NASA – climate.nasa.gov/climate_resources/246/video-global-ocean-tides

Ship animation from this painting – ve42.co/Agamemnon

Moore’s Law, the op-amp, and the Norden bombsight were filmed at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, CA.

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References:

Freeth, T., Bitsakis, Y., Moussas, X., Seiradakis, J. H., Tselikas, A., Mangou, H., ... & Edmunds, M. G. (2006). Decoding the ancient Greek astronomical calculator known as the Antikythera Mechanism. Nature, 444(7119), 587-591. – ve42.co/Freeth2006
Freeth, T., & Jones, A. (2012). The cosmos in the Antikythera mechanism. ISAW Papers. – ve42.co/Freeth2012
Cartwright, D. E. (2000). Tides: a scientific history. Cambridge University Press. – ve42.co/tides
Thomson, W. (2017). Mathematical and physical papers. CUP Archive. – ve42.co/Kelvinv6
Parker, B. B. (2007). Tidal analysis and prediction. NOAA NOS Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services. - ve42.co/Parker2007
Parker, B. (2011). The tide predictions for D-Day. Physics Today, 64(9), 35-40. – ve42.co/Parker2011
Small, J. (2013). The Analogue Alternative. Routledge. – ve42.co/Small2013
Zorpette, G. (1989). Parkinson's gun director. IEEE Spectrum, 26(4), 43. – ve42.co/Zorpette89
Tremblay, M. (2009). Deconstructing the myth of the Norden Bombsight (Doctoral dissertation). – ve42.co/Tremblay
Gladwell, M. (2021). The Bomber Mafia. Little, Brown and Company. - ve42.co/Gladwell2021
Mindell, D. A. (2000). Automation’s finest hour: Radar and system integration in World War II. Systems, Experts, and Computers: The Systems Approach in Management and Engineering, World War II and After. Edited by A. C. Hughes and T. P. Hughes, 27-56. – ve42.co/Mindell
Haigh, T., Priestley, M., & Rope, C. (2016). ENIAC in Action. The MIT Press. - ve42.co/Eniac2016
Soni, J., & Goodman, R. (2017). A mind at play: how Claude Shannon invented the information age. Simon and Schuster. – ve42.co/Soni
Haigh, T. & Ceruzzi, P. (2021). A New History of Modern Computing. The MIT Press. - ve42.co/ModernComputing
Rid, T. (2016). Rise of the Machines: a Cybernetic History. Highbridge. - ve42.co/Rid2016
Ulmann, B. (2013). Analog computing. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag. – ve42.co/Ulmann2013

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Baranidharan S, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Daniel Brockman, Anton Ragin, S S, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Edward Larsen, Burt Humburg, Blak Byers, Dumky, , Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, Ludovic Robillard, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

Written by Derek Muller, Stephen Welch and Emily Zhang
Filmed by Derek Muller, Emily Zhang and Raquel Nuno
Animation by Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, Mike Radjabov, Ivy Tello, Trenton Oliver
Edited by Derek Muller
Additional video supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound and Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev and Emily Zhang

Why are snowflakes like this?

Veritasium 2021-12-01 | Dr Ken Libbrecht is the world expert on snowflakes, designer of custom snowflakes, snowflake consultant for the movie Frozen - his photos appear on postage stamps all over the world. This video is sponsored by Brilliant. The first 200 people to sign up via brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription.

Thanks to Dr Ken Libbrecht for showing us how to grow designer snowflakes. Obviously, this video would not have been possible without his help and his expertise. His website is full of information about snowflakes http://snowcrystals.com. His new book is also available to purchase from here -- ve42.co/SnowCrystalsBook

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References:
Libbrecht, K. G. (2019). A Quantitative Physical Model of the Snow Crystal Morphology Diagram. arXiv preprint arXiv:1910.09067. -- ve42.co/Libbrecht2019

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Luis Felipe, Anton Ragin, Paul Peijzel, S S, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Sam Lutfi, MJP, Gnare, Nick DiCandilo, Dave Kircher, Edward Larsen, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Mike Tung, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Ismail Öncü Usta, Crated Comments, Anna, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, Oleksii Leonov, Jim Osmun, Tyson McDowell, Ludovic Robillard, Jim buckmaster, fanime96, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Vincent, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Alfred Wallace, Arjun Chakroborty, Joar Wandborg, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Ron Neal

Written by Derek Muller
Filmed by Derek Muller, Raquel Nuno, Trenton Oliver and Emily Zhang
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animations by Ivy Tello and Trenton Oliver
Additional video supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev and Emily Zhang

Most People Dont Know How Bikes Work

Veritasium 2021-11-28 | Why are bicycles stable? The most common answer is gyroscopic effects, but this is not right. This video was sponsored by Kiwico. Get 50% off your first month of any crate at kiwico.com/veritasium50

Huge thanks to Rick Cavallaro for creating this bike on short notice. Thanks to all the friends who participated in the filming. Rick was also responsible for the Blackbird Faster Than The Wind Downwind Cart. youtu.be/jyQwgBAaBag

Much of the information presented here on the stability of a riderless bicycle stems from original research at
Delft http://bicycle.tudelft.nl/schwab/Bicycle/
and
Cornell http://ruina.tam.cornell.edu/research/topics/bicycle_mechanics/overview.html

This line of bicycle-balance research was initiated by Jim Papadopoulos: nature.com/articles/535338a

Great videos on bikes and counter-steering:

MinutePhysics: How Do Bikes Stay Up? youtu.be/oZAc5t2lkvo

MinutePhysics: The Counterintuitive Physics of Turning a Bike: youtu.be/llRkf1fnNDM

Why Bicycles Do Not Fall - Arend Schwab TED talk: youtu.be/2Y4mbT3ozcA

Today I Found Out: We Still Don't Know How Bicycles Work youtu.be/YWsK6rmsKSI

TU Delft - Smart motor in handlebars prevents bicycles from falling over: youtu.be/rBOQp2uY_lk

Andy Ruina Explains How Bicycles Balance Themselves: youtu.be/NcZCzr9ExKk

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More References:

TU Delft Bicycle Site: http://bicycle.tudelft.nl/schwab/Bicycle/

Bicycle stability program: http://ruina.tam.cornell.edu/research/topics/bicycle_mechanics/JBike6_web_folder/index.htm

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Written by Derek Muller
Filmed by Trenton Oliver, Raquel Nuno and Derek Muller
Edited by Derek Muller
Music from Epidemic Sound and Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev and Emily Zhang