Uploaded August 2025 | Updated September 2026, 2 weeks ago
Electron Configurations
Dr. DeBacco
Electron Configurations: Mapping the Atom’s Electrons
Electron configuration is a way to describe how electrons are arranged around the nucleus of an atom.
It’s like a seating chart for electrons, showing which “orbitals” they occupy based on energy levels.
Writing Electron Configuration
You will need to match the elements…
Energy Level
Type of Orbital
Number of electrons in the orbital
Energy Level (Periods on the Periodic Table)
Type of Orbital (What Block is the Element in?)
Number of Electrons in the Orbital
Electron Configuration of fluorine: 1s22s22p5
Examples
Carbon (C): 1s² 2s² 2p² → p-block element
Iron (Fe): [Ar] 4s² 3d⁶ → d-block element
Uranium (U): [Rn] 7s² 5f³ → f-block element
Link to Lecture Slides: drive.google.com/file/d/1RfQuTmAdurnPr0ngi00dSJAyhYL0YKqk/view?usp=drive_link
*Due to the description character limit the full work cited for "Electron Configurations" can be viewed at... docs.google.com/document/d/13EiFwJZaK4n_qRJWCU_IMvb_H9pfGHsa/edit?usp=drive_link&ouid=104237452697237972847&rtpof=true&sd=true
Electron Configurations
Dr. DeBacco
Electron Configurations: Mapping the Atom’s Electrons
Electron configuration is a way to describe how electrons are arranged around the nucleus of an atom.
It’s like a seating chart for electrons, showing which “orbitals” they occupy based on energy levels.
Writing Electron Configuration
You will need to match the elements…
Energy Level
Type of Orbital
Number of electrons in the orbital
Energy Level (Periods on the Periodic Table)
Type of Orbital (What Block is the Element in?)
Number of Electrons in the Orbital
Electron Configuration of fluorine: 1s22s22p5
Examples
Carbon (C): 1s² 2s² 2p² → p-block element
Iron (Fe): [Ar] 4s² 3d⁶ → d-block element
Uranium (U): [Rn] 7s² 5f³ → f-block element
Link to Lecture Slides: drive.google.com/file/d/1RfQuTmAdurnPr0ngi00dSJAyhYL0YKqk/view?usp=drive_link
*Due to the description character limit the full work cited for "Electron Configurations" can be viewed at... docs.google.com/document/d/13EiFwJZaK4n_qRJWCU_IMvb_H9pfGHsa/edit?usp=drive_link&ouid=104237452697237972847&rtpof=true&sd=true










![Preparing Solutions Understanding pH and Water Potential
Molarity, Molality, and Normality
Use molarity when dealing with solution chemistry where volume is easy to measure.
Use molality when temperature varies or when studying boiling/freezing point changes.
Use normality when the reaction involves charge or proton transfer, and equivalents matter.
Molarity (M)
Molarity is the concentration of a solution expressed as moles of solute per liter of solution.
Formula:
𝑀=moles of solute /liters of solution
Key Features:
Depends on volume, which changes with temperature.
Commonly used in aqueous solutions, titrations, and equilibrium calculations.
Molality (m)
Molality (m): is the concentration expressed as moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
Formula:
𝑚=moles of solute /kg of solvent
Key Features:
Depends on mass, not volume → temperature‑independent.
Used in colligative properties (boiling point elevation, freezing point depression).
Normality (N)
Normality (N): measures concentration in equivalents per liter of solution.
Formula:
𝑁=𝑀×(number of equivalents )
What Counts as an “Equivalent”? Depends on the reaction type:
Acid–base: H⁺ or OH⁻ donated/accepted
Redox: electrons transferred
Precipitation: charge equivalents
Example: 1 M H₂SO₄ → 2 equivalents of H⁺ → 2 N
Core Differences
Molarity: moles of solute per liter of solution
Temperature‑dependent (volume changes)
Most common in equilibrium, kinetics, and titrations
Molality: moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
Temperature‑independent (mass does not change)
Used for colligative properties
Normality: equivalents per liter of solution
Reaction‑specific (acid–base, redox, precipitation)
Useful when stoichiometry involves equivalents rather than moles
Preparing Solutions
Preparing solutions: Always specify if molarity is for the hydrate/salt form (ex. MgCl₂·6H₂O)
Dilutions: C₁V₁ = C₂V₂ (valid for molarity in dilute aqueous solutions).
Understanding the C₁V₁ = C₂V₂ Equation
Dilution is about making a solution less concentrated by adding solvent (usually water). The equation:
𝐶_1 𝑉_1=𝐶_2 𝑉_2
C₁ = initial concentration
V₁ = volume you need to take from the stock
C₂ = final concentration
V₂ = final total volume after dilution
Why it works: The number of moles stays the same before and after dilution
*only the volume changes.
Step‑by‑Step: How to Prepare a Diluted Solution
Identify C₁, V₂, and C₂.
Solve for V₁ using
𝑉_1=(𝐶_2 𝑉_2)/𝐶_1
Measure V₁ of the stock solution.
Transfer to a volumetric flask.
Add solvent until you reach V₂.
Definition of pH
pH=−log10[H+]
Each 1‑unit change in pH = 10‑fold change in [H+]
Temperature Dependence
Kw increases with temperature
Neutral pH drops as temperature rises
At 37 °C, neutral pH ≈ 6.8
Important for interpreting physiological pH (blood ≈ 7.4 is still alkaline relative to neutrality)
Strong Acids and Bases
Strong acids and strong bases dissociate completely in water
Examples:
HCl → H⁺ + Cl⁻
NaOH → Na⁺ + OH⁻
In dilute solutions: [H⁺] ≈ initial concentration
Osmosis in Cells
Water moves from higher Ψ → lower Ψ across membranes.
If a cell is placed in a solution with lower Ψ → water leaves → plasmolysis
If placed in higher Ψ → water enters → turgor pressure increases
Pressure Potential (Ψp): The Push of Water
Pressure potential is the physical pressure exerted on water.
In turgid plant cells, Ψp is positive (cell wall pushes back).
In xylem, Ψp can be negative due to tension from transpiration.
Pressure can raise water potential, helping water move upward.
Movement Through Plant Tissues
Water potential gradients drive:
Root uptake
Xylem transport
Leaf transpiration
Water moves from soil (highest Ψ) → roots → stem → leaves → air (lowest Ψ).
Turgor Pressure and Cell Function
Turgor pressure maintains:
Leaf rigidity
Growth
Stomatal opening
Low Ψ in the environment → loss of turgor → wilting.
Water Potential and the Cohesion–Tension Mechanism
Transpiration creates negative pressure potential in leaves:
Water evaporates
Pulls water upward through xylem
Cohesion keeps the column intact
Adhesion helps water stick to xylem walls
This entire process is driven by Ψ gradients.
Gravity is overcome by pressure potential + solute potential + transpiration tension.
Typical Ψ values in a transpiring plant
Soil: Ψ ≈ –0.1 MPa
Root xylem: Ψ ≈ –0.3 MPa
Stem xylem: Ψ ≈ –0.6 MPa
Leaf mesophyll: Ψ ≈ –1.5 MPa
Air (dry): Ψ ≈ –100 MPa or lower
This enormous gradient explains how water is pulled upward against gravity.
Link to Lecture Slides: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1mpj28HsfUezYR-QpF3iSDAS9juxqPJPj/view?usp=drive_link
Due to the description character limit the full work cited for Preparing Solutions Understanding pH and Water Potential can be viewed at... https://docs.google.com/document/d/1ARYz5HO1Do9joQZ0suC1PpF0xjbx3FSS/edit?usp=drive_link&ouid=104237452697237972847&rtpof=true&sd=true Preparing Solutions Understanding pH and Water Potential](https://i.ytimg.com/vi/WbINsHL1wbE/mqdefault.jpg)