MinuteEarth
Ambergris: Why Perfume Makers Love Constipated Whales
updated
To learn more about Aarhus University's research on cable bacteria, click here: https://bio.au.dk/forskning/forskningscentre/center-for-elektromikrobiologi-cem
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Bacterium: a member of a large group of unicellular microorganisms which have cell walls but lack organelles and an organized nucleus, including some that can cause disease.
- Electron: a stable subatomic particle with a charge of negative electricity, found in all atoms and acting as the primary carrier of electricity in solids.
- Metabolism: the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life.
- Respiration: a process in living organisms involving the production of energy, typically with the intake of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide from the oxidation of complex organic substances.
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Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
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Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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REFERENCES
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Khan Academy. “Oxidative Phosphorylation.” Khan Academy, 2016, www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cellular-energetics/cellular-respiration-ap/a/oxidative-phosphorylation-etc
Nature education. “Cell Metabolism | Learn Science at Scitable.” Www.nature.com, 2014, www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/cell-metabolism-14026182
Nielsen, Lars Peter, et al. “Electric Currents Couple Spatially Separated Biogeochemical Processes in Marine Sediment.” Nature, vol. 463, no. 7284, Feb. 2010, pp. 1071–1074, doi.org/10.1038/nature08790
Pfeffer, Christian, et al. “Filamentous Bacteria Transport Electrons over Centimetre Distances.” Nature, vol. 491, no. 7423, 24 Oct. 2012, pp. 218–221, doi.org/10.1038/nature11586
Stefano Scilipoti, et al. “Oxygen Consumption of Individual Cable Bacteria.” Science Advances, vol. 7, no. 7, 10 Feb. 2021, doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abe1870
Turrens, J. F. “Mitochondrial Formation of Reactive Oxygen Species.” The Journal of Physiology, vol. 552, no. 2, 15 Oct. 2003, pp. 335–344.
Zhao, Ru‑Zhou, et al. “Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain, ROS Generation and Uncoupling (Review).” International Journal of Molecular Medicine, vol. 44, no. 1, 8 May 2019, pp. 3–15, doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2019.4188
A world without predators. It sounds like a safer, happier world, but come on, this is SCIENCE…
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Ecosystem: a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.
- Herbivore: an animal that feeds on plants.
- Top predator: a predator without natural predators of its own.
- Trophic cascade: an ecological phenomenon triggered by the addition or removal of top predators.
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Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Storyboard Artist
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Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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OUR STAFF
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Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
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Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
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REFERENCES
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Estes, James A., et al. “Trophic Downgrading of Planet Earth.” Science, vol. 333, no. 6040, 14 July 2011, pp. 301–306, doi.org/10.1126/science.1205106
Moore, Peter D. “Green and Pleasant Trials.” Nature, vol. 440, no. 7084, Mar. 2006, pp. 613–614, www.nature.com/articles/440613a, doi.org/10.1038/440613a
Stolzenburg, William. “Ecosystems Unraveling.” Anthropocene, 31 July 2008, www.anthropocenemagazine.org/conservation/2008/07/ecosystems-unraveling
Terborgh, J. “Ecological Meltdown in Predator-Free Forest Fragments.” Science, vol. 294, no. 5548, 30 Nov. 2001, pp. 1923–1926, doi.org/10.1126/science.1064397
Many animal species stuff themselves with toxic chemicals for protection, which forces them to use a handful of distinct strategies to avoid becoming victims of their own weapons.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Antibody: a blood protein produced in response to and counteracting a specific antigen. Antibodies combine chemically with substances which the body recognizes as alien, such as bacteria, viruses, and foreign substances in the blood.
- Globulin: any of a group of simple proteins soluble in salt solutions and forming a large fraction of blood serum protein.
- Poison: a substance that is capable of causing the illness or death of a living organism when introduced or absorbed.
- Venom: a poisonous substance secreted by animals such as snakes, spiders, and scorpions and typically injected into prey or aggressors by biting or stinging.
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Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Storyboard Artist
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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
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REFERENCES
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Abderemane-Ali, Fayal, et al. “Evidence That Toxin Resistance in Poison Birds and Frogs Is Not Rooted in Sodium Channel Mutations and May Rely on “Toxin Sponge” Proteins.” Journal of General Physiology, vol. 153, no. 9, 5 Aug. 2021, doi.org/10.1085/jgp.202112872
Kinkawa, Kohshi, et al. “Up-Regulation of the Expressions of Phospholipase A2 Inhibitors in the Liver of a Venomous Snake by Its Own Venom Phospholipase A2.” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 395, no. 3, May 2010, pp. 377–381, doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.04.024
Mackessy, Stephen P., and Louise M. Baxter. “Bioweapons Synthesis and Storage: The Venom Gland of Front-Fanged Snakes.” Zoologischer Anzeiger - a Journal of Comparative Zoology, vol. 245, no. 3, 24 Nov. 2006, pp. 147–159, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0044523106000416, doi.org/10.1016/j.jcz.2006.01.003
Nekaris, K Anne-Isola, et al. “Mad, Bad and Dangerous to Know: The Biochemistry, Ecology and Evolution of Slow Loris Venom.” Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases, vol. 19, no. 1, 2013, p. 21, doi.org/10.1186/1678-9199-19-21
Resiere, Dabor, et al. “Bothrops Lanceolatus Bites: Guidelines for Severity Assessment and Emergent Management.” Toxins, vol. 2, no. 1, 22 Jan. 2010, pp. 163–173, doi.org/10.3390/toxins2010163. Accessed 14 Mar. 2023.
Takacs, Zoltan, et al. “Snake α-Neurotoxin Binding Site on the Egyptian Cobra (Naja Haje) Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Is Conserved.” Molecular Biology and Evolution, vol. 18, no. 9, 1 Sept. 2001, pp. 1800–1809, doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003967
Tarvin, Rebecca D., et al. “Interacting Amino Acid Replacements Allow Poison Frogs to Evolve Epibatidine Resistance.” Science, vol. 357, no. 6357, 22 Sept. 2017, pp. 1261–1266, doi.org/10.1126/science.aan5061
It seems wild that some animals basically trade in their bodies for new ones during their lifetime, but it's actually really common – and it makes a lot of sense.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Metamorphosis: a biological process by which an animal physically develops including birth transformation or hatching, involving a conspicuous and relatively abrupt change in the animal's body structure.
- Holometabolous: a type of metamorphosis (also known as "complete metamorphosis") that involves four distinct stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult.
- Hemimetamolous: a type of metamorphosis (also known as "incomplete metamorphosis") that includes three distinct stages: the egg, nymph, and the adult stage.
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Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Storyboard Artist
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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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OUR STAFF
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REFERENCES
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Ebenman, B (1992). Evolution in Organisms that Change Their Niches during the Life Cycle. The American Naturalist 139(5): 990–1021. doi.org/10.1086/285370
Rolff J, Johnston PR, Reynolds S (2019). Complete metamorphosis of insects. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci Oct 14;374. doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0063
Sherratt E, Vidal-García M, Anstis M, Keogh JS (2017). Adult frogs and tadpoles have different macroevolutionary patterns across the Australian continent. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 1(9): 1385–1391. doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0268-6
Ten Brink H, de Roos AM , Dieckmann U (2019) The evolutionary ecology of metamorphosis. The American Naturalist 193(5), E116-E131. doi.org/10.1086/701779
Truman JW (2019). The Evolution of Insect Metamorphosis, Current Biology 29(23): R1252-R1268. doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.10.009
Truman JW, Riddiford LM (2019). The evolution of insect metamorphosis: a developmental and endocrine view. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B37420190070. doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0070
Truman JW, Riddiford LM (1999). The origins of insect metamorphosis. Nature, 401(6752), 447–452. doi.org/10.1038/46737
Despite the seemingly basic things we don't know about dinosaurs, we do know some surprising things – like their body temperatures.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Clumped Isotopes: heavy isotopes that are bonded to other heavy isotopes.
- Ectotherm: any animal whose regulation of body temperature depends on external sources.
- Endotherm: an animal that is dependent on or capable of the internal generation of heat.
- Isotope: each of two or more forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, and hence differ in relative atomic mass but not in chemical properties; in particular.
- Mesotherm: a type of animal with a thermoregulatory strategy intermediate to cold-blooded ectotherms and warm-blooded endotherms.
- Metabolism: the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life.
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CREDITS
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Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Ruis | Storyboard Artist
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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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OUR STAFF
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REFERENCES
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Dawson, Robin R., et al. “Eggshell Geochemistry Reveals Ancestral Metabolic Thermoregulation in Dinosauria.” Science Advances, vol. 6, no. 7, Feb. 2020, p. eaax9361, doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax9361
Eagle, Robert A., et al. “Dinosaur Body Temperatures Determined from Isotopic (13C-18O) Ordering in Fossil Biominerals.” Science, vol. 333, no. 6041, 22 July 2011, pp. 443–445, doi.org/10.1126/science.1206196
Gillooly, James F, et al. “Dinosaur Fossils Predict Body Temperatures.” PLoS Biology, vol. 4, no. 8, 11 July 2006, p. e248, doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0040248
Lacerda, Julio. “Were Dinosaurs Cold-Blooded or Warm-Blooded? Actually, Neither.” Earth Archives, eartharchives.org/articles/eggshells-tell-scientists-about-dinosaur-body-temperatures/index.html
M.C. Dalconi, et al. “Structure of Bioapatite in Human Foetal Bones: An X-Ray Diffraction Study.” Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms, vol. 200, 1 Jan. 2003, pp. 406–410, doi.org/10.1016/s0168-583x(02)01730-5
Nicholas Carter. “What’s Going on with Troodon?” Philip J. Currie Dinosaur Museum, 11 Feb. 2019, dinomuseum.ca/2019/02/whats-going-on-with-troodon
Tagliavento, Mattia, et al. “Evidence for Heterothermic Endothermy and Reptile-like Eggshell Mineralization in Troodon, a Non-Avian Maniraptoran Theropod.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 120, no. 15, 3 Apr. 2023, doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2213987120
Wiemann, Jasmina, et al. “Fossil Biomolecules Reveal an Avian Metabolism in the Ancestral Dinosaur.” Nature, vol. 606, no. 7914, 25 May 2022, pp. 522–526, doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04770-6
Wikipedia Contributors. “Clumped Isotopes.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 7 Aug. 2024, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clumped_isotopes
The ancestors of gars, horseshoe crabs and coelacanths looked almost the same as their modern relatives. Darwin called species like these “living fossils'' because they seem like they are evolutionarily frozen in time. But Darwin was wrong.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Stabilomorph: A species that retains a stable form over millions of years.
- Molecular Evolutionary Rate: The frequency with which DNA or protein sequences are fixed in a population.
- Ship of Theseus Paradox: A philosophical thought experiment that asks if an object is still the same if all of its original components are replaced over time.
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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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OUR STAFF
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REFERENCES
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Kin, A., & Błażejowski, B. (2014). The horseshoe crab of the genus Limulus: living fossil or stabilomorph?. PloS one, 9(9), e108036. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0108036
Brownstein, C. D., et al. (2024). The genomic signatures of evolutionary stasis. Evolution; international journal of organic evolution, 78(5), 821–834. doi.org/10.1093/evolut/qpae028
Amemiya, C. T., et al. (2013). The African coelacanth genome provides insights into tetrapod evolution. Nature, 496(7445), 311–316. doi.org/10.1038/nature12027
Casane, D., & Laurenti, P. (2013). Why coelacanths are not 'living fossils': a review of molecular and morphological data. BioEssays : news and reviews in molecular, cellular and developmental biology, 35(4), 332–338. doi.org/10.1002/bies.201200145
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. How Genomes Evolve. Retrieved from: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26836
Dresow, M. (2023). Re-thinking Living Fossils, Again. ExtinctBlog. Retrieved from: extinctblog.org/extinct/2023/9/2/living-fossils
Romeo, J. (2020). The Horseshoe Crab: Same As It Ever Was? `JSTOR. daily.jstor.org/the-horseshoe-crab-same-as-it-ever-was
Black, R. (2014). Evolution in the slow lane. National Geographic. nationalgeographic.com/science/article/evolution-in-the-slow-lane
Shear, W, Werth, A. (2014). The Evolutionary Truth About Living Fossils. American Scientist. americanscientist.org/article/the-evolutionary-truth-about-living-fossils
Beehives always have a queen, who is the mother of the entire hive. But have you ever wondered, what happened to the king, if there was ever any? Can a male bee become a king?
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Haplodiploidy: is a sex-determination system in which males develop from unfertilized eggs and are haploid, and females develop from fertilized eggs and are diploid.
- Sex determination in honeybees: In honeybees, the drones (males) are entirely derived from the queen, their mother. The diploid queen has 32 chromosomes and the haploid drones have 16 chromosomes. Drones produce sperm cells that contain their entire genome, so the sperm are all genetically identical except for mutations.
- Eusocial: showing an advanced level of social organization, in which a single female or caste produces offspring and nonreproductive individuals cooperate in caring for the young.
- Fertilize: cause (an egg, female animal, or plant) to develop a new individual by introducing male reproductive material.
- Genetics: the study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.
- Queen Bee: the single reproductive female in a hive or colony of honeybees.
- Sterile: not able to produce children or young.
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CREDITS
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Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Storyboard Artist
Ever Salazar | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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REFERENCES
**************
Cowan, D. P., and J. K. Stahlhut. “Functionally Reproductive Diploid and Haploid Males in an Inbreeding Hymenopteran with Complementary Sex Determination.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 101, no. 28, 1 July 2004, pp. 10374–10379, doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0402481101
Engel, M. S. “Monophyly and Extensive Extinction of Advanced Eusocial Bees: Insights from an Unexpected Eocene Diversity.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 98, no. 4, 13 Feb. 2001, pp. 1661–1664, doi.org/10.1073/pnas.98.4.1661
“Haplodiploidy - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics.” sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/haplodiploidy
Joshi, Chinmay Hemant, and John J. Wiens. “Does Haplodiploidy Help Drive the Evolution of Insect Eusociality?” Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, vol. 11, 16 Mar. 2023, doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2023.1118748
Nowak, Martin A., et al. “The Evolution of Eusociality.” Nature, vol. 466, no. 7310, Aug. 2010, pp. 1057–1062, doi.org/10.1038/nature09205
Parker, Joel D. “A Major Evolutionary Transition to More than Two Sexes?” Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol. 19, no. 2, Feb. 2004, pp. 83–86, doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2003.10.001.
Plowes, Nicola. “An Introduction to Eusociality | Learn Science at Scitable.” nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/an-introduction-to-eusociality-15788128
Thorne, Barbara L. “Evolution of Eusociality in Termites.” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, vol. 28, 1997, pp. 27–54, jstor.org/stable/2952485
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You might think the most dangerous thing that can happen at a beach is a shark attack, or that the scariest thing might be a tsunami - but instead, rip currents kill more beachgoers than all other causes combined.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Jetty: a breakwater constructed to protect or defend a harbor, stretch of coast, or riverbank.
- Rip current: a relatively strong, narrow current flowing outward from the beach through the surf zone and presenting a hazard to swimmers.
- Rip tide: a strong current caused by tidal flow in confined areas such as inlets and presenting a hazard to swimmers and boaters. A similar but distinct phenomenon often confused for a rip current.
- Sandbar: a deposit of sand forming a shallow area in the sea or a river.
- Surf zone: the area of the ocean where waves break near the shoreline.
- Undertow: a current of water below the surface and moving in a different direction from any surface current. Also distinct from a rip current.
- Wave Set Up: elevation of the mean water level at the shoreline due to wave breaking in the surf zone.
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CREDITS
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Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Lizah van der Aart | Storyboard Artist
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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OUR STAFF
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Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
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REFERENCES
**************
Brander, Robert W. “Rip Currents.” Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series/Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences, 1 Jan. 2019, pp. 1442–1447, doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93806-6_261
Castelle, B., et al. “Rip Current Types, Circulation and Hazard.” Earth-Science Reviews, vol. 163, Dec. 2016, pp. 1–21, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825216303117, doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.09.008
Leatherman, Stephen P. “Undertow, Rip Current, and Riptide.” Journal of Coastal Research, vol. 28, no. 4, 1 July 2012, doi.org/10.2112/jcoastres-d-12-00052.1
Masselink, Gerd, et al. Introduction to Coastal Processes and Geomorphology. Routledge, 4 Apr. 2014.
McCarroll, R. Jak, et al. “Evaluation of Swimmer-Based Rip Current Escape Strategies.” Natural Hazards, vol. 71, no. 3, 25 Dec. 2013, pp. 1821–1846, doi.org/10.1007/s11069-013-0979-1
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. “Rip Currents - Currents: NOAA’s National Ocean Service Education.” Noaa.gov, 2019, oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/03coastal3.html
Withers, Archie, and Sergio Maldonado. “On the Swimming Strategies to Escape a Rip Current: A Mathematical Approach.” Natural Hazards, vol. 108, no. 2, 22 Apr. 2021, pp. 1449–1467, doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-04740-7
Plants can tell when competitors are nearby because they can *see* them.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Shade avoidance: changes in plant body form and function that occur in response to the light signals provided by neighboring vegetation
- Photoreceptors: light-sensitive proteins involved in the sensing and response to light in a variety of organisms
- Far-red light: light at the extreme red end of the visible spectrum, just before infrared light (wavelength of ~700 to 750 nm)
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CREDITS
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Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
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Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Ballaré CL, and Pierik R. (2017) The shade-avoidance syndrome: multiple signals and ecological consequences. Plant, Cell & Environment, 40: 2530–2543. doi.org/10.1111/pce.12914
Casal JJ. (2013) Photoreceptor signaling networks in plant responses to shade. Annu Rev Plant Biol. 64:403-27. doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-050312-120221
Kothari S, Montgomery RA, Cavender-Bares J. (2021) Physiological responses to light explain competition and facilitation in a tree diversity experiment. Journal of Ecology 109: 2000–2018. doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13637
Palayam M, Ganapathy J, Guercio AM et al. (2021) Structural insights into photoactivation of plant Cryptochrome-2. Commun Biol 4, 28. doi.org/10.1038/s42003-020-01531-x
Roig-Villanova I, Paulišić S, Martinez-Garcia JF. (2019) Shade Avoidance and Neighbor Detection. In: Hiltbrunner, A. (eds) Phytochromes. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 2026. Humana, New York, NY. doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9612-4_13
Smith, H. (2000) Phytochromes and light signal perception by plants—an emerging synthesis. Nature 407, 585–591. doi.org/10.1038/35036500
There’s an island in the Caribbean where David used to perform magic tricks for monkeys. And it was super cool because it suggested that they have the ability to count! (but only up to four)
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Approximate number system: A cognitive system that supports the estimation of the magnitude of a group without relying on language or symbols.
- Violation of expectancy looking time measure: A technique used to determine if subjects were surprised by an outcome of an experiment based on the idea that surprising outcomes resulted in longer looking times.
- Cross-species comparison: Comparisons across species that differ in cognitive character.
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CREDITS
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David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Lizah van der Aart & Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Storyboard Artists
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
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Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Nieder, A. (2019). A Brain for Numbers: The Biology of the Number Instinct. The MIT Press.
Hauser, M. D., & Carey, S. (2003). Spontaneous representations of small numbers of objects by rhesus macaques: examinations of content and format. Cognitive psychology, 47(4), 367–401. doi.org/10.1016/s0010-0285(03)00050-1
Abramson, J. Z., Hernández-Lloreda, V., Call, J., & Colmenares, F. (2011). Relative quantity judgments in South American sea lions (Otaria flavescens). Animal cognition, 14(5), 695–706. doi.org/10.1007/s10071-011-0404-7
Rodríguez, R.L., Briceño, R.D., Briceño-Aguilar, E. et al. Nephila clavipes spiders (Araneae: Nephilidae) keep track of captured prey counts: testing for a sense of numerosity in an orb-weaver. Anim Cogn 18, 307–314 (2015). doi.org/10.1007/s10071-014-0801-9
Santos, L. R., Sulkowski, G. M., Spaepen, G. M., & Hauser, M. D. (2002). Object individuation using property/kind information in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Cognition, 83(3), 241–264. doi.org/10.1016/s0010-0277(02)00006-9
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Petri dish: a shallow, circular, transparent dish with a flat lid, used for the culture of microorganisms.
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CREDITS
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Lizah van der Aart | Script Writer, Narrator and Storyboard Artist
Cameron Duke | Director
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Amann, R I, et al. “Phylogenetic Identification and in Situ Detection of Individual Microbial Cells without Cultivation.” Microbiological Reviews, vol. 59, no. 1, Mar. 1995, pp. 143–169, doi.org/10.1128/mr.59.1.143-169.1995
Ledford, Heidi. “Promising Antibiotic Discovered in Microbial “Dark Matter.”” Nature, 7 Jan. 2015, doi.org/10.1038/nature.2015.16675
Meysman, Filip J.R. “Cable Bacteria Take a New Breath Using Long-Distance Electricity.” Trends in Microbiology, vol. 26, no. 5, May 2018, pp. 411–422, doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2017.10.011. Accessed 11 Dec. 2022
Šmajs, David, et al. “Genetics of Human and Animal Uncultivable Treponemal Pathogens.” Infection, Genetics and Evolution, vol. 61, 22 Mar. 2018, pp. 92–107, doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2018.03.015
Visick, Karen L., et al. “A Lasting Symbiosis: How Vibrio Fischeri Finds a Squid Partner and Persists within Its Natural Host.” Nature Reviews Microbiology, vol. 19, no. 10, 1 Oct. 2021, pp. 654–665, www.nature.com/articles/s41579-021-00557-0, doi.org/10.1038/s41579-021-00557-0
LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Basic reproduction number: a figure expressing the average number of cases of an infectious disease arising by transmission from a single infected individual, in a population that has not previously encountered the disease.
- Epidemic: a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time.
- Meme: an image, video, piece of text, etc., typically humorous in nature, that is copied and spread rapidly by internet users, often with slight variations.
- Viral: of the nature of, caused by, or relating to a virus or viruses. Or relating to or involving an image, video, piece of information, etc., that is circulated rapidly and widely from one internet user to another.
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CREDITS
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Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Storyboard Artist
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
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Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
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REFERENCES
**************
“Incorporating Global Dynamics to Improve the Accuracy of Disease Models: Example of a COVID-19 SIR Model.” doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265815
“Basic Reproduction Number - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics.” www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/basic-reproduction-number
“The Power of a Good Idea: Quantitative Modeling of the Spread of Ideas from Epidemiological Models.” doi.org/10.1016/j.physa.2005.08.083
“Estimates of the Reproduction Number for Seasonal, Pandemic, and Zoonotic Influenza: A Systematic Review of the Literature.” doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-14-480
“Measles Epidemic from Failure to Immunize.” www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1022280/?page=4
“Complexity of the Basic Reproduction Number (R0).” doi.org/10.3201/eid2501.171901
“Ebola Virus Disease Outbreak - 8 October 2019.” africacdc.org/disease-outbreak/ebola-virus-disease-outbreak-8-october-2019
“Epidemic Calculator.” gabgoh.github.io/COVID/index.html
“Epidemic Curve - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics.” www.sciencedirect.com/topics/mathematics/epidemic-curve
“Pandemic Potential of a Strain of Influenza a (H1N1): Early Findings.” doi.org/10.1126/science.1176062.
“The Spread and Control of HIV/AIDS Infection Using the SIR Model.” ir.uitm.edu.my/id/eprint/72512/1/72512.pdf
“Deterministic Models for Rumor Transmission.” doi.org/10.1016/j.nonrwa.2007.06.004. Accessed 31 Oct. 2019
“A Contribution to the Mathematical Theory of Epidemics.” doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1927.0118
“An Empirical Analysis of the Ebola Outbreak in West Africa.” doi.org/10.1038/srep42594
“The Possibility of an Epidemic Meme Analogy for Web Community Population Analysis.” doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-77226-2_107
“Do Memes Behave like Viruses?” doi.org/10.5070/bs326258270
“The Reproduction Number of COVID-19 and Its Correlation with Public Health Interventions.” doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.01.20088047
“The Basic Reproduction Number (R0) of Ebola Virus Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2023.102685
“Deterministic Epidemic Models for Ebola Infection with Time-Dependent Controls.” hindawi.com/journals/ddns/2020/2823816
Sir, Weiss, and Ronald Ross. The SIR Model and the Foundations of Public Health. https://mat.uab.cat/matmat_antiga/PDFv2013/v2013n03.pdf
“The SIR Model for Spread of Disease - the Differential Equation Model | Mathematical Association of America.” maa.org/press/periodicals/loci/joma/the-sir-model-for-spread-of-disease-the-differential-equation-model
“Susceptible‐Infectious‐Recovered (SIR) Model Based Forecasting of COVID‐19 Outbreak in Bangladesh.” doi.org/10.1111/ijcp.13648
“An Epidemiological Approach to Model the Viral Propagation of Memes.” doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2011.04.035
On the Origins of Memes by Means of Fringe Web Communities.
There are huge varieties of birth control methods because there are lots of different ways to disrupt the process of sperm-egg fertilization.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Contraception: the use of devices, drugs, or surgery to prevent pregnancy - also known as birth control.
- Progestin: the synthetic form of progesterone, a sex hormone that plays a role in the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
- Gametes: haploid reproductive cells including sperm and eggs.
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CREDITS
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Kate Yoshida | Narrator
David Goldenberg | Script Writer and Director
Lizah van der Aart | Storyboard Artist
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Britton, L. E., Alspaugh, A., Greene, M. Z., & McLemore, M. R. (2020). CE: An Evidence-Based Update on Contraception. The American journal of nursing, 120(2), 22–33. doi.org/10.1097/01.NAJ.0000654304.29632.a7
Petitti, D. B., & Sidney, S. (2005). Four decades of research on hormonal contraception. The Permanente journal, 9(1), 29–34. doi.org/10.7812/TPP/04-129
Teal S, Edelman A. (2021) Contraception Selection, Effectiveness, and Adverse Effects: A Review. JAMA. 326(24):2507–2518. doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.21392
Daniels K, Abma JC. Current contraceptive status among women aged 15–49: United States, 2017–2019. NCHS Data Brief, no 388. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2020. cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db388.htm
Birth Control: Forms, Options, Risks and Effectiveness. Cleveland Clinic. my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/11427-birth-control-options
Special thanks to Louise Langheier for her input.
Lots of languages and species are going extinct, but because others keep getting found or described, the official counts of languages and species are still increasing.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Language death: when a language loses its last known native speaker.
- Species extinction: the termination of a species by the death of its last member.
- Ethnologue.com: the world’s foremost authority on the languages of the world and their current status.
SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH
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CREDITS
*********
David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Lizah van der Aart | Storyboard Artist
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
************
Youtube | youtube.com/MinuteEarth
TikTok | tiktok.com/@minuteearth
Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
Instagram | instagram.com/minute_earth
Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Anderson, S. (2012). Languages, Species, and Biological Parallels. Oxford University Press Blog. blog.oup.com/2012/07/why-do-humans-talk-biology-language
McWhorter, J. (2016). What’s a Language, Anyway?. The Atlantic. Retrieved from: theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/01/difference-between-language-dialect/424704
IUCN RedList. (2024). Summary Statistics. iucnredlist.org/resources/summary-statistics#Summary%20Tables
Ritchie, H. (2022). How Many Species Are There? Our World in Data. ourworldindata.org/how-many-species-are-there
Eberhard, Dave. (2024). Personal Communication. Senior Linguistics Consultant for Ethnologue. sil.org/biography/david-m-eberhard
Brown, E. (2018). Millennial Aboriginal Australians Have Developed Their Own Language. Atlas Obscura. atlasobscura.com/articles/light-warlpiri
And use redeem code: MINUTEEARTH
#BeastLord #AnimalGame #LionGame
Humans eat a lot of different animals, but almost none of them are carnivores - why?
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Biomagnification: the process by which substances (usually harmful ones) in the natural environment gradually increase in concentration along the food chain
- Trophic level: A level or position in a food chain, a food web, or an ecological pyramid.
- Herbivore: an organism that mostly feeds on plants
- Omnivore: an organism that feeds on plants and animals
- Carnivore: an organism that eats exclusively - or almost exclusively - animals.
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CREDITS
*********
Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Rius & Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Youtube | youtube.com/MinuteEarth
TikTok | tiktok.com/@minuteearth
Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
Instagram | instagram.com/minute_earth
Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Han BA, Kramer AM, Drake JM. Global Patterns of Zoonotic Disease in Mammals. Trends Parasitol. 2016 Jul;32(7):565-577. doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2016.04.00
Leroy F, Smith NW, Adesogan AT, Beal T, Iannotti L, Moughan PJ, Mann N. The role of meat in the human diet: evolutionary aspects and nutritional value. Anim Front. 2023 Apr 15;13(2):11-18. doi: 10.1093/af/vfac093
Kim SW, Han SJ, Kim Y, Jun JW, Giri SS, Chi C, et al. (2019) Heavy metal accumulation in and food safety of shark meat from Jeju island, Republic of Korea. PLoS ONE 14(3): e0212410. doi: /10.1371/journal.pone.0212410
Koster JM, Hodgen JJ, Venegas MD et al. (2010) Is Meat Flavor a Factor in Hunters’ Prey Choice Decisions?. Hum Nat 21, 219–242. doi: 10.1007/s12110-010-9093-1
Jasper from @Minutelabsio or Asa Stahl from @planetarysociety ?
And get your own Solar Eclipses Across the Solar System Tee here: store.dftba.com/collections/minuteearth/products/solar-eclipses-across-the-solar-system-tee
Over the last year, we at MinuteEarth and MinutePhysics have had the privilege of working with NASA's Heliophysics Education Activation Team make a series of videos about the awesomeness of solar eclipses. Here they are, all seven of them!
0:00 - Intro
1:00 - Eclipses Used To Be Terrifying | youtube.com/watch?v=SUSo74fyZbY
5:07 - Why Aren't There Eclipses Every Month? | youtu.be/vIZyuXl-91U?si=SNB5L30DqRQ1BrRR
7:27 - Why does the north get more total eclipses? | youtu.be/1GrOLainIiA?si=8o-WBmHRe4cV8jks
10:59 - Why Do Eclipses Travel WEST to EAST? | youtu.be/ujYYlXP12m4?si=sq_zi0pQDTUUQq3Q
14:56 - Weird Things Animals Do During Eclipses | youtu.be/idlq8zCrUkY?si=VrPpG7v8hNf_KldM
18:42 - How eclipses proved that the Earth is slowing down | youtu.be/inMPbM6Rsl8?si=IrT15lijduCsr7Dv
22:11 - The LAST Eclipse in History | youtu.be/W7mVQ3kRPv8?si=EySy6uC4EdhEGNMC
26:04 - MinuteLabs Eclipse Explorer
This Product is supported by the NASA Heliophysics Education Activation Team (NASA HEAT), part of NASA’s Science Activation portfolio.
The material contained in this document is based upon work supported by a National Aeronautics And Space Administration (NASA) grant or cooperative agreement. Any questions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this materials are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of NASA.
LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Annular Eclipse: an eclipse of the sun in which the edge of the sun remains visible as a bright ring around the moon.
- Elliptical orbit: when an object moves around another object in an oval shaped path.
- Latitude: the angular distance of a place north or south of the earth's equator, or of a celestial object north or south of the celestial equator, usually expressed in degrees and minutes.
- Total Eclipse: an eclipse of the sun in which the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth, completely blocking the face of the Sun.
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OUR STAFF
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Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
The cause, as you might expect, is humans.
The material contained in this document is based upon work supported by a National Aeronautics And Space Administration (NASA) grant or cooperative agreement. Any questions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this materials are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of NASA.
Solar eclipses can happen anywhere on earth, but if you want to see a total eclipse, you need to go to the far north, because the Earth’s shape and orbit determine the high latitudes and eclipse hotspot.
LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Annular Eclipse: an eclipse of the sun in which the edge of the sun remains visible as a bright ring around the moon.
- Elliptical orbit: when an object moves around another object in an oval shaped path.
- Latitude: the angular distance of a place north or south of the earth's equator, or of a celestial object north or south of the celestial equator, usually expressed in degrees and minutes.
- Total Eclipse: an eclipse of the sun in which the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth, completely blocking the face of the Sun.
SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH
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If you like what we do, you can help us!:
- Our merch: http://dftba.com/minuteearth
- Our book: minuteearth.com/books
- Share this video with your friends and family
- Leave us a comment (we read them!)
CREDITS
*********
Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Lizah van der Aart and Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
************
Youtube | youtube.com/MinuteEarth
TikTok | tiktok.com/@minuteearth
Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
Instagram | instagram.com/minute_earth
Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Bakich, Michael E. “How Often Do Solar Eclipses Occur? | Astronomy.com.” Astronomy Magazine, 18 July 2023, astronomy.com/observing/how-often-do-solar-eclipses-occur
Espenak, Fred, and Jean Meeus. Five Millennium Canon of Solar Eclipses. 30 July 2021.
J. Meeus. “The Frequency of Total and Annular Solar Eclipses for a given Place.” Journal of the British Astronomical Association, vol. 92, 1 Apr. 1982, pp. 124–126.
“The Comparative Size of Various Solar System Objects | Britannica.” britannica.com/video/185399/size-solar-system-objects
Wright, Ernie (2024). “NASA Scientific Visualization Studio | 5000 Years of Total Solar Eclipses.” NASA Scientific Visualization Studio. svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/5222
When a ship sinks, lots of factors, like the ship’s materials, the water quality, and the depth of the seafloor all play a role in determining how long the ship will last down there - as a result, the Titanic will be gone in fifty years, while Byzantine wrecks in the Black sea remain.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Anoxia: the absence of oxygen
- Chemosynthesis: the synthesis of organic compounds by bacteria or other living organisms using energy derived from reactions involving inorganic chemicals, typically in the absence of sunlight.
- Corrode: destroy or damage (metal, stone, or other materials) slowly by chemical action.
- Decomposer: an organism, especially a soil bacterium, fungus, or invertebrate, that decomposes organic material.
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Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Lizah van der Aart | Storyboarding and Illustration
Sarah Berman | Illustration and Video Editing
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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OUR STAFF
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Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
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REFERENCES
**************
“Centuries of Preserved Shipwrecks Found in the Black Sea.” History, 26 Oct. 2016, www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/black-sea-shipwreck-discovery
“Divers Visited the Titanic’s Wreck for the First Time in over a Decade. Here’s Why They Were Shocked by the Ship’s Condition.” Time, time.com/5658903/titanic-wreck-deteriorating
“Dokos Shipwreck.” Wikipedia, 2 Jan. 2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dokos_shipwreck
““Oldest Intact Wreck” Found in Black Sea.” BBC News, 23 Oct. 2018, www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-45951132
Price, Kyra A., et al. “A Shallow Water Ferrous-Hulled Shipwreck Reveals a Distinct Microbial Community.” Frontiers in Microbiology, vol. 11, 19 Aug. 2020, doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.01897
Saplakoglu, Yasemin. “Perfectly Preserved Ancient Shipwreck Found in the Baltic Sea with Guns Ready to Fire.” Livescience.com, 24 July 2019, www.livescience.com/66011-ancient-shipwreck-baltic-sea.html
Science, Aristos Georgiou, and Health Reporter. “Titanic Is Being Eaten by the Ocean in Its Watery Grave.” Newsweek, 23 Sept. 2022, www.newsweek.com/titanic-could-become-entombed-coral-after-being-eaten-alive-ocean-1745782
“The Science of Shipwrecks.” Coastwatch, ncseagrant.ncsu.edu/coastwatch/previous-issues/2013-2/winter-2013/the-science-of-shipwrecks/
Watson, Sara Kiley. “How Scientists Keep Ancient Shipwrecks from Crumbling into Dust.” Popular Science, 2 Nov. 2020, www.popsci.com/story/science/saving-shipwreck-nanoparticles
“Why Is This 2,500 Year Old Shipwreck so Well-Preserved? - Helen Farr and Jon Adams.” TED-Ed, ed.ted.com/lessons/why-is-this-2-500-year-old-shipwreck-so-well-preserved-helen-farr-and-jon-adams
“Why Some Shipwreck Treasures Disintegrate, While Others Stand the Test of Time.” Popular Mechanics, 13 Feb. 2023, www.popularmechanics.com/science/archaeology/a42244647/recovering-treasure-from-shipwrecks
Woodward, Aylin. “The Titanic Is Slowly but Surely Disappearing — Here’s What the Wreck Looks like Now.” Business Insider, www.businessinsider.com/titanic-shipwreck-disappearing-dive-reveals-2019-9
“World’s Oldest Intact Shipwreck Found in Black Sea.” Phys.org, phys.org/news/2018-10-world-oldest-intact-shipwreck-black.html
Many crustaceans from all sorts of starting points evolve to end up looking similar, likely due to outside pressures. That’s sort of like what happens with YouTube videos.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Convergent Evolution: The process by which certain species independently evolve similar traits.
- Carcinization: a form of convergent evolution in which non-crab crustaceans evolve a crab-like body plan.
- Decapods: Crustaceans including lobsters, crabs, crayfish, and shrimp.
- YouTube algorithm: A secret set of complex computer-based rules that recommends videos presumably to increase user engagement.
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REFERENCES
**************
Wolfe, J. M., Breinholt, J. W., Crandall, K. A., Lemmon, A. R., Lemmon, E. M., Timm, L. E., Siddall, M. E., & Bracken-Grissom, H. D. (2019). A phylogenomic framework, evolutionary timeline and genomic resources for comparative studies of decapod crustaceans. Proceedings. Biological sciences, 286(1901), 20190079. doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2019.0079
Stayton C. T. (2015). What does convergent evolution mean? The interpretation of convergence and its implications in the search for limits to evolution. Interface focus, 5(6), 20150039. doi.org/10.1098/rsfs.2015.0039
McLaughlin, P. A., & Lemaitre, R. (1997). Carcinization in the Anomura - fact or fiction? I. Evidence from adult morphology. Contributions to Zoology, 67(2), 79-123. doi.org/10.1163/18759866-06702001
Scholtz, G. (2014). Evolution of crabs – history and deconstruction of a prime example of convergence. Contributions to Zoology, 83(2), 87-105. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1163/18759866-08302001
Smith, A., Toor, S., Van Kessel, P. (2018). Many Turn to YouTube for Children’s Content, News, How-To Lessons. Pew Research. pewresearch.org/internet/2018/11/07/many-turn-to-youtube-for-childrens-content-news-how-to-lessons
Sawada, R., Sato, W. Emotional attention capture by facial expressions. Sci Rep 5, 14042 (2015). doi.org/10.1038/srep14042
Tellis, G. J., MacInnis, D. J., Tirunillai, S., & Zhang, Y. (2019). What Drives Virality (Sharing) of Online Digital Content? The Critical Role of Information, Emotion, and Brand Prominence. Journal of Marketing, 83(4), 1-20. doi.org/10.1177/0022242919841034
Weismueller, J., Harrigan, P. (2021). Organic Reach on YouTube: What Makes People Click on Videos from Social Media Influencers?. In: Martínez-López, F.J., López López, D. (eds) Advances in Digital Marketing and eCommerce. DMEC 2021. Springer Proceedings in Business and Economics. Springer, Cham. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76520-0_17
Joanna M Wolfe, et al, (2023). Convergent Adaptation of True Crabs (Decapoda: Brachyura) to a Gradient of Terrestrial Environments, Systematic Biology, 2023. doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syad066
The average human, in theory, eats 3 spiders a year. If you're not eating them and I'm not eating them, who is?
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Probability distribution: A function giving the probability of a certain measure having a certain value.
- Skewness: A measure of how asymmetrical a distribution looks like.
- Multimodal distribution: A distribution with more than one peak.
If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:
- This applet where you can play around with means and medians statcrunch.com/applets/type1&meanmedian
- I don't know if this counts as "fun" but here's the dataset I created for the cars two-peaked distribution docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/e/2PACX-1vR4CH1Lcq4pxXeh8f6bswqqK64jdzLv0ajln_DLq5Sapm4WAER9tT9olCDUKJejGT3ugRXxwNUoT10p/pubhtml?gid=0&single=true
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Arcadi Garcia, David Goldenberg, Lizah van der Aart | Script Writers
David Goldenberg | Director
Cameron Duke, Arcadi Garcia | Narrators
Arcadi Garcia | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
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Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
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Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
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REFERENCES
**************
Roser, Max, Cameron Appel, and Hannah Ritchie. “Human Height.” Our World in Data, January 23, 2024. ourworldindata.org/human-height.
US Census Bureau. “PINC-11. Income Distribution to $250,000 or More for Males: 2022” and “PINC-11. Income Distribution to $250,000 or More for Females:2022”. US Census Bureau, 2022. www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/cps/tables/pinc-11/2023
The material contained in this document is based upon work supported by a National Aeronautics And Space Administration (NASA) grant or cooperative agreement. Any questions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this materials are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of NASA.
For centuries, humans have reported animals freaking out during solar eclipses, like birds falling from the sky and bees hiding in their hives, but the animals most affected by eclipses might be us.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Behavior: the way in which an animal or person acts in response to a particular situation or stimulus.
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CREDITS
*********
Cameron Duke | Script Writer and Narrator
David Goldenberg | Director
Lizah van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
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Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
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Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Alvarez-Cárdenas, Sergio, et al. “Observations on Behavior of the Lizard Uta Stansburiana during a Total Solar Eclipse.” The Southwestern Naturalist, vol. 42, no. 1, 1997, pp. 108–112, www.jstor.org/stable/30054070
Branch, Jane E., and Deborah A. Gust. “Effect of Solar Eclipse on the Behavior of a Captive Group of Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes).” American Journal of Primatology, vol. 11, no. 4, 1986, pp. 367–373, doi.org/10.1002/ajp.1350110407
Chan, Melissa. “How Do Animals React to an Eclipse? Depends on How Smart They Are.” Time, 17 Aug. 2017, time.com/4882733/total-solar-eclipse-animals-react
“Christopher Clavius - Biography.” Maths History, mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Clavius
Georgia, University of. “How Does a Solar Eclipse Affect Animals?” Treehugger, www.treehugger.com/how-does-solar-eclipse-affect-animals-4868135
Gil-Burmann, Carlos, and Marcial Beltrami. “Effect of Solar Eclipse on the Behavior of a Captive Group of Hamadryas Baboons (Papio Hamadryas).” Zoo Biology, vol. 22, no. 3, 2003, pp. 299–303, doi.org/10.1002/zoo.10077
Hartstone-Rose, Adam, et al. “Total Eclipse of the Zoo: Animal Behavior during a Total Solar Eclipse.” Animals, vol. 10, no. 4, 31 Mar. 2020, p. 587, doi.org/10.3390/ani10040587
Hester, Jessica Leigh. “What We Know about How Animals Reacted to the 2017 Eclipse.” Atlas Obscura, 15 Nov. 2018, www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-animals-react-to-an-eclipse
LESCURE, J. “THE EFFECT of a TOTAL SUN ECLIPSE on the VOCAL BEHAVIOR of SOME AMPHIBIANS.” THE EFFECT of a TOTAL SUN ECLIPSE on the VOCAL BEHAVIOR of SOME AMPHIBIANS., 1975, pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=PASCAL7650164283
Murdin, Paul. “Effects of the 2001 Total Solar Eclipse on African Wildlife.” Astronomy & Geophysics, vol. 42, no. 4, 1 Aug. 2001, pp. 4.04–4.08, doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-4004.2001.0420044.4.x
Nilsson, Cecilia, et al. “Aeroecology of a Solar Eclipse.” Biology Letters, vol. 14, no. 11, 28 Nov. 2018, p. 20180485, doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0485
Pandey, Kamleshwar, and Jagdamba P. Shukla. “Behavioural Studies of Freshwater Fishes during a Solar Eclipse.” Environmental Biology of Fishes, vol. 7, no. 1, Jan. 1982, pp. 63–64, doi.org/10.1007/bf00011824
Ritson, Robert, et al. “Comparing Social Media Observations of Animals during a Solar Eclipse to Published Research.” Animals, vol. 9, no. 2, 14 Feb. 2019, p. 59, doi.org/10.3390/ani9020059
Sanborn, Allen F., and Polly K. Phillips. “Observations on the Effect of a Partial Solar Eclipse on Calling in Some Desert Cicadas (Homoptera: Cicadidae).” The Florida Entomologist, vol. 75, no. 2, June 1992, p. 285, doi.org/10.2307/3495634
Uetz, George W., et al. “Behavior of Colonial Orb-Weaving Spiders during a Solar Eclipse.” Ethology, vol. 96, no. 1, 26 Apr. 2010, pp. 24–32, doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1994.tb00878.x
Want to know more about ambergris? Have a look at the full video here: youtu.be/vN1brVnlBZU?si=4m_A75f7vaksRbKJ
Because of the way digestion works, human poop not only contains dangerous microbes, it also contains a wide variety of other things, many of which we could potentially put to use.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Pathogens: Organisms that can cause disease.
- Reuse of Human Excreta: The safe and beneficial use of treated human poop.
- Biogas: A renewable energy source that’s a combination of methane and carbon dioxide.
- Black soldier fly larvae: Among the most efficient animals at converting biomass into feed.
- Biosolids: Solid organic matter retrieved from the sewage treatment process that can be used as fertilizer among other uses.
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CREDITS
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David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Lizah van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
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Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
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REFERENCES
**************
Rose C, Parker A, Jefferson B, Cartmell E. (2015) The Characterization of Feces and Urine: A Review of the Literature to Inform Advanced Treatment Technology. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol. 2015 Sep 2;45(17):1827-1879. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4500995
Trimmer, C. (2016). SANITATION, WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY FROM WASTE DISPOSAL TO RESOURCE RECOVERY. UNEP. susana.org/_resources/documents/default/3-2636-7-1487004303.pdf
Cornwall, W. (2015). Sewage sludge could contain millions of dollars worth of gold. Science. science.org/content/article/sewage-sludge-could-contain-millions-dollars-worth-gold
Paul Westerhoff, Sungyun Lee, Yu Yang, Gwyneth W. Gordon, Kiril Hristovski, Rolf U. Halden, and Pierre Herckes. (2015). Characterization, Recovery Opportunities, and Valuation of Metals in Municipal Sludges from U.S. Wastewater Treatment Plants Nationwide. Environmental Science & Technology 2015 49 (16), 9479-9488. pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es505329q
Debasree Purkayastha, Sudipta Sarkar. (2023) Performance evaluation of black soldier fly larvae fed on human faeces, food waste and their mixture. Journal of Environmental Management, Volume 326, Part A. sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301479722023003
Why is the middle of a hurricane sometimes so clear and calm?
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Subsidence: the downward movement of an air parcel as it cools and becomes denser
- Vortex: a region in a fluid in which the flow revolves around an axis line
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Cameron Duke | Director
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Hurricane Harvey Roaring and Spinning In Gulf of Mexico 2017
Footage by: Film Master | Shutterstock
Hurricane eye over sea in satellite photo
Photo by: Viacheslav Lopatin | Shutterstock
Extreme CAT 5 major hurricane OTIS
Footage by: BroadcastNews | Shutterstock
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REFERENCES
**************
Houze, RA et al. (2007). Hurricane Intensity and Eyewall Replacement. Science, 315(5816), 1235–1239. doi.org/10.1126/science.1135650
Schubert WH et al. (2007). On the distribution of subsidence in the hurricane eye. , 133(624), 595–605. doi.org/10.1002/qj.49
Shen, W (2006). Does the size of hurricane eye matter with its intensity?. Geophysical Research Letters, 33(18). doi.org/10.1029/2006GL027313
Smith, RK (1980) Tropical cyclone eye dynamics. Journal of Atmospheric Science 37: 1227-1232. doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037%3C1227:TCED%3E2.0.CO;2
Willoughby HE (1998). Tropical cyclone eye thermodynamics. Monthly Weather Review, 126(12), 3053-3067. journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/mwre/126/12/1520-0493_1998_126_3053_tcet_2.0.co_2.xml
As the waters warm in the deep sea around Antarctica, ecosystem-crushing crabs are able to live closer and closer to the continent.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Continental shelf: the area of seabed around a large landmass where the sea is relatively shallow compared with the open ocean.
- Invasive species: an organism that causes ecological or economic harm in a new environment where it is not native.
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Virginia Schutte | Script Writer
Kate Yoshida | Script Editor
Cameron Duke | Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Ruis | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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REFERENCES
**************
Aronson, Richard B., et al. “Prospects for the Return of Shell-Crushing Crabs to Antarctica.” Journal of Biogeography, vol. 42, no. 1, 6 Oct. 2014, pp. 1–7, doi.org/10.1111/jbi.12414
Griffiths, Huw J., et al. “Antarctic Crabs: Invasion or Endurance?” PLoS ONE, vol. 8, no. 7, 3 July 2013, p. e66981, doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0066981
Thatje, Sven, et al. “CHALLENGING the COLD: CRABS RECONQUER the ANTARCTIC.” Ecology, vol. 86, no. 3, Mar. 2005, pp. 619–625, doi.org/10.1890/04-0620
“From Deep to Shallow Seas: Antarctic King Crab on the Move.” Ecology, vol. 101, no. 11, 23 July 2020, doi.org/10.1002/ecy.3125
Thatje, Sven, and Wolf E. Arntz. “Antarctic Reptant Decapods: More than a Myth?” Polar Biology, vol. 27, no. 4, 1 Mar. 2004, pp. 195–201, doi.org/10.1007/s00300-003-0583-z
Watch @SeeYouOutsideShow video about Catatumbo Lightning: youtube.com/watch?v=0ABZOUvZ_WY
Esther's TikTok: tiktok.com/@toseeyououtside
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Lightning hotspot: is a geographic location where there is a higher frequency of lightning activity compared to surrounding areas.
- Lightning flash frequency: refers to the average number of lightning strikes occurring in a specific area over a given period of time. It can be measured in flashes per km2 per year.
- Convergent windflow:
- Coastal breeze: is the movement of air from the ocean to the land (onshore breeze) or from the land to the ocean (offshore breeze). The direction of the breeze is determined by the temperature difference between the land and the water.
- Convective instability: is a meteorological term that describes the atmospheric condition favorable for the development of convection, which is the vertical movement of air. This instability is a key factor in the formation of thunderstorms and other convective weather phenomena.
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Esther Ikoro | Writer and Narrator (@SeeYouOutsideShow)
Ever Salazar | Writer, Illustrator and Director
Lizah van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
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Catatumbo Lightning Footage by Paolo Costa / Shutterstock.com
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REFERENCES
**************
Albrecht, R. I., et al (2016). Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth?. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 97, 2051–2068, doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1
Albrecht, R. I. (2023). Meteorology Professor at the Department of Atmospheric Sciences at University of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Personal Communication.
NOAA (2010). Lightning Flash Rate. sos.noaa.gov/catalog/datasets/lightning-flash-rate
Daniel J. Cecil, et al (2014). Gridded lightning climatology from TRMM-LIS and OTD: Dataset description. Atmospheric Research, Volumes 135–136, 2014, Pages 404-414. doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2012.06.028
LIS 0.1 Degree Very High Resolution Gridded Lightning Full Climatology (VHRFC) V1 search.earthdata.nasa.gov/search?q=lisvhrfc
TRMM LIS/OTD Gridded Lightning Climatology Data Sets
lightning.nsstc.nasa.gov/data/data_lis-otd-climatology.html
Electric eels can emit some of the largest shocks in the animal kingdom - but why don't they shock themselves?
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Electrocyte: a modified muscle or nerve cell that generates electricity in the electric organ of certain fishes
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REFERENCES
**************
Raimundo Nonato Gomes Mendes Júnior (2023). Analista Ambiental, Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade. Personal Communication
Babineau D, Longtin A, & Lewis JE (2006). Modeling the electric field of weakly electric fish. Journal of Experimental Biology 209: 3636–3651. doi.org/10.1242/jeb.02403
Bauer, R (1979). Electric organ discharge (EOD) and prey capture behaviour in the electric eel, Electrophorus electricus. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 4: 311–319.
Bennett, MVL(1971).Electric organs. In Fish Physiology, W.S. Hoar, and D.J. Randall,eds. (AcademicPress),pp.347–491. doi.org/10.1007/BF00303239
Catania K (2014). The shocking predatory strike of the electric eel. Science 346, 1231–1234 (2014). doi.org/10.1126/science.1260807
Catania, KC (2015). Electric Eels Concentrate Their Electric Field to Induce Involuntary Fatigue in Struggling Prey. Current Biology, 25(22), 2889–2898. doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.09.036
Catania, K.C. (2015). An optimized biological TASER: electric eels remotely induce or arrest movement in nearby prey. Brain, Behavior and Evolution 86: 38–47. doi.org/10.1159/000435945
de Santana, C et al. (2019). Unexpected species diversity in electric eels with a description of the strongest living bioelectricity generator. Nature Communications, 10(1), 4000–. doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11690-z
Markham MR (2013). Electrocyte physiology: 50 years later. Journal of Experimental Biology, 216(13), 2451–2458. doi.org/10.1242/jeb.082628
Premature babies majorly benefit from skin-to-skin contact with a parent –also known as “kangaroo care”– because it reduces infections and hypothermia and increases weight gain and parental involvement.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Preterm birth: Babies born before 37 weeks of gestation. Complications from prematurity kill more than 900,000 children each year.
- Incubator: An enclosed apparatus providing a controlled environment for premature babies.
- Sepsis: A life-threatening complication from infection.
- Hypothermia: A medical emergency that occurs when the body loses heat faster than it can produce it.
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REFERENCES
**************
Conde‐Agudelo A, Díaz‐Rossello JL. (2016). Kangaroo mother care to reduce morbidity and mortality in low birthweight infants. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 8. Art. No.: CD002771. doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002771.pub4
Samra, N. M., Taweel, A. E., & Cadwell, K. (2013). Effect of intermittent kangaroo mother care on weight gain of low birth weight neonates with delayed weight gain. The Journal of perinatal education, 22(4), 194–200. doi.org/10.1891/1058-1243.22.4.194
Thidarat Eksirinimit, Busakorn Punthmatharith, Nongyao Bansopit, Kiatkamjorn Kusol. (2023). Effects of Kangaroo Care on body temperature of premature infants and maternal satisfaction at Maharaj Nakhon Si Thammarat hospital, Thailand. Journal of Neonatal Nursing, Volume 29, Issue 2, Pages 302-306. doi.org/10.1016/j.jnn.2022.07.005
Sugandha Arya, Suhail Chhabra, Richa Singhal, et al. (2023) Effect on neonatal sepsis following immediate kangaroo mother care in a newborn intensive care unit: a post-hoc analysis of a multicentre, open-label, randomised controlled trial, eClinicalMedicine, Volume 60. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2023.102006
Kangaroo Mother Care. (2023) Givewell. givewell.org/international/technical/programs/kangaroo-mother-care#What_is_the_problem
Sewers are a great way to make pooping safe, but they’re not always the right solution because they require specific resources that many places just don’t have.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Sewage system: A network of pipes that conveys sewage from a point of origin to a treatment plant.
- Fecal pathogens: Bacteria, viruses, and parasites that can infect people through feces contamination.
- Utility decentralization: The process of bringing the production of utilities like energy closer to the place it is consumed instead of from a central location farther away.
- Reuse of human excreta: The safe or beneficial reuse of treated human poop for things like fuel or fertilizer.
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REFERENCES
**************
Kone, Doulaye (2023). Personal Communication. Deputy Director, Water, Sanitation, & Hygiene. Gates Foundation. Retrieved from: gatesfoundation.org/about/leadership/doulaye-kone
Obradović, Dino, Marija Šperac, and Saša Marenjak. 2023. "Challenges in Sewer System Maintenance" Encyclopedia 3, no. 1: 122-142. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia3010010
Kruzman, D. (2022). “Cities are investing billions in new sewage systems. They’re already obsolete.” Grist. Retrieved from: grist.org/cities/cities-are-investing-billions-in-new-sewage-systems-theyre-already-obsolete
Root, R. (2020). “When are sewers the best option for improved sanitation?” Devex. Retrieved from: devex.com/news/when-are-sewers-the-best-option-for-improved-sanitation-97983
Kone, D. (2021). “The future of sanitation: 10 years of reinventing the toilet.” Gates Foundation. Retrieved from: gatesfoundation.org/ideas/articles/sanitation-reinvent-toilet
Cisneros B. J. (2011). Safe Sanitation in Low Economic Development Areas. Treatise on Water Science, 147–200. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53199-5.00082-8
Fernholz, T. (2014). More people around the world have cell phones than ever had land-lines. Quartz. Retrieved from: qz.com/179897/more-people-around-the-world-have-cell-phones-than-ever-had-land-lines
Bovarnick, B. and Dach, E. (2014). Electricity without the Grid. Center for American Progress. Retrieved from: americanprogress.org/article/electricity-without-the-grid
Hurricane path prediction seems straightforward, until it is not – that’s because hurricanes can encounter atmospheric effects that turn their paths into erratic nonsense.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Fujiwhara effect: a phenomenon that occurs when two nearby cyclonic vortices move around each other and close the distance between the circulations of their corresponding low-pressure areas.
- Tropical Cyclone: a localized, very intense low-pressure wind system, forming over tropical oceans and with winds of hurricane force.
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REFERENCES
**************
Ashcroft, John, et al. “The Impact of Weak Environmental Steering Flow on Tropical Cyclone Track Predictability.” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 147, no. 741, 1 Oct. 2021, pp. 4122–4142, doi.org/10.1002/qj.4171
“Current Wind Direction and Layer Mean Wind Steering «2023 Hurricane Season - Track the Tropics - Spaghetti Models”, trackthetropics.com/current-wind-direction-and-layer-mean-wind-steering
Fujiwhara, S. “The Natural Tendency towards Symmetry of Motion and Its Application as a Principle in Meteorology.” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 47, no. 200, Oct. 1921, pp. 287–292, doi.org/10.1002/qj.49704720010
“Hurricanes: Science and Society: Hurricane Movement”, hurricanescience.org/science/science/hurricanemovement
Pasch, Richard, et al. “HURRICANE MARIA.” 4 Jan. 2023.
Shellito, Lucinda. “Hurricane Chat.” Received by Cameron Duke.
Tropical Cyclone Motion.“Tropical Cyclone Steering | METEO 3: Introductory Meteorology.” https://www.e-education.psu.edu/meteo3/node/2275
“Typhoon Parma.” Earthobservatory.nasa.gov, 4 Oct. 2009, earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/40582/typhoon-parma
“Typhoon Parma Trajectory.” Wikipedia, 30 Oct. 2023, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parma_2009_track.png
US Department of Commerce, NOAA. “Fujiwhara Effect.” weather.gov/news/fujiwhara-effect
Life in Antarctica's ocean has followed a completely different evolutionary path from other ocean life because of how cold and isolated the ocean is.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Antarctic Circumpolar Current: an ocean current that flows clockwise from west to east around Antarctica.
- Polar Gigantism: The phenomenon that animals near the poles are larger than their temperate counterparts.
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Virginia Schutte | Script Writer
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Antarctica Footage | Virginia Schutte and Holly Bik, funded by the National Science Foundation
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REFERENCES
**************
Gatti, Susanne. “The Role of Sponges in High-Antarctic Carbon and Silicon Cycling -a Modelling Approach” Ber. Polarforsch. Meeresforsch, vol. 434, 2002, https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/26613/1/BerPolarforsch2002434.pdf
“Giant Volcano Sponge Articles - Encyclopedia of Life.” eol.org/pages/1162798/articles
Hunt, Katie. “An Icefish Colony Discovered in Antarctica Is World’s Largest Fish Breeding Ground.” CNN, 13 Jan. 2022, cnn.com/2022/01/13/world/icefish-colony-discovery-scn/index.html
Moran, Amy L., and H. Arthur Woods. “Why Might They Be Giants? Towards an Understanding of Polar Gigantism” The Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 215, no. 12, 23 May 2012, pp. 1995–2002. doi.org/10.1242/jeb.067066
Rankin, J. C, and H Tuurala. “Gills of Antarctic Fish.” Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, vol. 119, no. 1, 1 Jan. 1998, pp. 149–163. doi.org/10.1016/S1095-6433(97)00396-6
Rennie, John. “Icefish Study Adds Another Color to the Story of Blood.” Quanta Magazine, 22 Apr. 2019, quantamagazine.org/icefish-study-adds-another-color-to-the-story-of-blood-20190422
Rosa, Rui, et al. “Biology and Ecology of the World’s Largest Invertebrate, the Colossal Squid (Mesonychoteuthis Hamiltoni): A Short Review.” Polar Biology, vol. 40, no. 9, 1 Sept. 2017, pp. 1871–1883. doi.org/10.1007/s00300-017-2104-5
Shishido, Caitlin M., et al. “Polar Gigantism and the Oxygen–Temperature Hypothesis: A Test of Upper Thermal Limits to Body Size in Antarctic Pycnogonids.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol. 286, no. 1900, 10 Apr. 2019, p. 20190124, doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2019.0124
Sidell, B. D. “When Bad Things Happen to Good Fish: The Loss of Hemoglobin and Myoglobin Expression in Antarctic Icefishes.” Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 209, no. 10, 15 May 2006, pp. 1791–1802, doi.org/10.1242/jeb.02091
Thomisch, K, et al. “Spatio-Temporal Patterns in Acoustic Presence and Distribution of Antarctic Blue Whales Balaenoptera Musculus Intermedia in the Weddell Sea.” Endangered Species Research, vol. 30, 18 July 2016, pp. 239–253, doi.org/10.3354/esr00739
Zummo, G., et al. “The Heart of the Icefish: Bioconstruction and Adaptation.” Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research = Revista Brasileira de Pesquisas Medicas E Biologicas, vol. 28, no. 11-12, 1995, pp. 1265–1276, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8728857
We've long known that animal pollination is an important way plants reproduce on land, but we're only JUST finding out animals also pollinate plants underwater.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Zoophily: a form of pollination whereby pollen is transferred by animals
- Hydrophily: a type of pollination in which pollen is dispersed by the flow of water
- Seaweed: massive, multicellular algae
- Spermatia: a nonmotile male gamete of red alga
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REFERENCES
**************
Lavaut, E., Guillemin, M. L., Colin, S., Faure, A., Coudret, J., Destombe, C., & Valero, M. (2022). Pollinators of the sea: A discovery of animal-mediated fertilization in seaweed. Science, 377(6605), 528-530. doi.org/10.1126/science.abo6661
Ollerton, J., & Ren, Z. X. (2022). Did pollination exist before plants?. Science, 377(6605), 471-472. doi.org/10.1126/science.add3198
van Tussenbroek, B. I., Monroy-Velazquez, L. V., & Solis-Weiss, V. (2012). Meso-fauna foraging on seagrass pollen may serve in marine zoophilous pollination. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 469, 1-6. doi.org/10.3354/meps10072
Van Tussenbroek, B. I., Villamil, N., Márquez-Guzmán, J., Wong, R., Monroy-Velázquez, L. V., & Solis-Weiss, V. (2016). Experimental evidence of pollination in marine flowers by invertebrate fauna. Nature communications, 7(1), 12980. doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12980
The material contained in this document is based upon work supported by a National Aeronautics And Space Administration (NASA) grant or cooperative agreement. Any questions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this materials are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of NASA.
Because eclipses are powerful and frightening events, ancient cultures went to great lengths to understand eclipses, leading to remarkably accurate predictions and helping invent the science of astronomy.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Saros: a period of about 18 years between repetitions of solar and lunar eclipses.
If you liked this week’s video, you might also like:
The Five Millenium Canon of Solar Eclipses - eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEpubs/5MCSE.html
CREDITS
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Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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OTHER CREDITS
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Stonehenge Midsummer Sunrise 2013
Photo by: Flickr user Stonehenge Stone Circle
flickr.com/photos/stonehenge-stone-circle/8980676956
Bamboo Annals: double dawn
Liu, Liu, and Ma, 2003, Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage (ISSN 1440-2807), Vol. 6, No. 1, p. 53 - 63, Figure 2. Bamboo Annals: double dawn.
https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/2003JAHH....6...53L/0000060.000.html
Cuneiform tablet: ephemeris of eclipses
metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/321969
Seleucid ca. 4th–2nd century BCE / Met Museum
Eclipse Predictions by Fred Espenak and Jean Meeus (NASA's GSFC)
Five Millennium Canon of Lunar Eclipses
Saros series (via NASA)
Adapted from a Map illustration by Michael Zeiler
Paths of totality from eclipse calculator by Xavier Jubier
Eclipse predictions by Fred Espenak, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Many Saros Series
Adapted from: eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEatlas/SEatlas3/SEatlas2041.GIF
Credit: Eclipse Predictions by Fred Espenak, NASA GSFC Emeritus.
OUR STAFF
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REFERENCES
**************
Brown, Daniel. “Blood Moon: Lunar Eclipse Myths from around the World.” The Conversation, theconversation.com/blood-moon-lunar-eclipse-myths-from-around-the-world-100548
Carman, Christián C., and James Evans. “On the Epoch of the Antikythera Mechanism and Its Eclipse Predictor.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences, vol. 68, no. 6, Nov. 2014, pp. 693–774, doi.org/10.1007/s00407-014-0145-5
COLTON, R., and R. L. MARTIN. “Eclipse Cycles and Eclipses at Stonehenge.” Nature, vol. 213, no. 5075, Feb. 1967, pp. 476–478, doi.org/10.1038/213476a0
de Jong, T., and W. H. van Soldt. “The Earliest Known Solar Eclipse Record Redated.” Nature, vol. 338, no. 6212, Mar. 1989, pp. 238–240, doi.org/10.1038/338238a0
Espenak, Fred. “NASA - Eclipses and the Saros.” Eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov, eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEsaros/SEsaros.html
Espenak, Fred, and Jean Meeus. Five Millennium Canon of Lunar Eclipses. 7 Aug. 2021.
Five Millennium Canon of Solar Eclipses. 30 July 2021.
HAWKINS, GERALD S. “Stonehenge: A Neolithic Computer.” Nature, vol. 202, no. 4939, June 1964, pp. 1258–1261, doi.org/10.1038/2021258a0
Hermann Hunger, and David Pingree. Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia. Leiden ; Boston, Brill, 1999.
HOYLE, FRED. “Stonehenge–an Eclipse Predictor.” Nature, vol. 211, no. 5048, July 1966, pp. 454–456, www.nature.com/articles/211454a0.pdf, doi.org/10.1038/211454a0
Liu, C., et al. “Examination of Early Chinese Records of Solar Eclipses.” Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, vol. 6, no. 1, 2003, pp. 53–63, adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2003JAHH....6...53L
“NASA - Sun-Earth Day - Technology through Time - Babylon”. sunearthday.nasa.gov/2006/locations/babylon.php.
Rubio, Gonzalo. “How Eclipses Were Regarded as Omens in the Ancient World.” The Conversation, theconversation.com/how-eclipses-were-regarded-as-omens-in-the-ancient-world-81248
Tsu, Wen Shion. “A Statistical Survey of Solar Eclipses in Chinese History.” Popular Astronomy, vol. 42, no. 136, 1934, adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1934PA.....42..136T
Every species on Earth has a fingerprint - whether or not they have fingers at all.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Spectral fingerprint: the distinctive pattern of radiation reflected by a surface (or a species) as a function of the wavelength
- Spectroscopy: the field of study that measures and interprets the electromagnetic spectra that result from the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter as a function of the wavelength or frequency of the radiation
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Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
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*****************
Photo of Forest in False Color from:
Sapes, G., C. Lapadat, A. K. Schweiger, J. Juzwik, R. Montgomery, H. Gholizadeh, P. A. Townsend, J. A. Gamon, and J. Cavender-Bares. 2022. Canopy spectral reflectance detects oak wilt at the landscape scale using phylogenetic discrimination. Remote Sensing of Environment 273:112961. doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2022.112961
Photo of Oak Wilt from:
J. Antonio Guzmán Q., Jesús N. Pinto-Ledezma, David Frantz, Philip A. Townsend, Jennifer Juzwik, Jeannine Cavender-Bares, Mapping oak wilt disease from space using land surface phenology, Remote Sensing of Environment, 298, 2023, 113794. doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2023.113794
Satellite Images from Google Earth
Antarctica: Data SIO, NOAA, U.S. Navy, NGA, GEBCO. U.S. Geological Survey. Landsat / Copernicus
Amazon Rainforest: Landsat / Copernicus
Northeastern cost of Australia: Data SIO, NOAA, U.S. Navy, NGA, GEBCO. Landsat / Copernicus. TerraMetrics
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REFERENCES
**************
Hollings, T., Burgman, M., van Andel, M., Gilbert, M., Robinson, T., & Robinson, A. (2018). How do you find the green sheep? A critical review of the use of remotely sensed imagery to detect and count animals. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 9(4), 881-892. doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12973
Leblanc, G., Francis, C. M., Soffer, R., Kalacska, M., & De Gea, J. (2016). Spectral reflectance of polar bear and other large arctic mammal pelts; potential applications to remote sensing surveys. Remote Sensing, 8(4), 273. doi.org/10.3390/rs8040273
Lubin, D., Li, W., Dustan, P., Mazel, C. H., & Stamnes, K. (2001). Spectral signatures of coral reefs: features from space. Remote Sensing of Environment, 75(1), 127-137. doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(00)00161-9
Pinto-Ledezma, J. N., Frantz, D., Townsend, P. A., Juzwik, J., & Cavender-Bares, J. (2023). Mapping oak wilt disease from space using land surface phenology. Remote Sensing of Environment, 298, 113794. doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2023.113794
Richardson, A. D., Aubrecht, D. M., Basler, D., Hufkens, K., Muir, C. D., & Hanssen, L. (2021). Developmental changes in the reflectance spectra of temperate deciduous tree leaves and implications for thermal emissivity and leaf temperature. New Phytologist, 229(2), 791-804. doi.org/10.1111/nph.16909
Sapes, G., Lapadat, C., Schweiger, A. K., Juzwik, J., Montgomery, R., Gholizadeh, H., ... & Cavender-Bares, J. (2022). Canopy spectral reflectance detects oak wilt at the landscape scale using phylogenetic discrimination. Remote Sensing of Environment, 273, 112961. doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2022.112961
Terletzky, P., Ramsey, R. D., & Neale, C. M. (2012). Spectral characteristics of domestic and wild mammals. GIScience & Remote Sensing, 49(4), 597-608. doi.org/10.2747/1548-1603.49.4.597
The material contained in this document is based upon work supported by a National Aeronautics And Space Administration (NASA) grant or cooperative agreement. Any questions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this materials are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of NASA.
Without eclipses, our world would be a lot different because eclipses give us the ability to do science we otherwise wouldn’t be able to.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Corona: the outermost part of the Sun's atmosphere.
- General Relativity: a theory of gravitation developed by Albert Einstein that says that the observed gravitational effect between masses results from their warping of spacetime.
- Lunar Eclipse: an eclipse in which the moon appears darkened as it passes into the earth's shadow.
- Solar Eclipse : an eclipse in which the sun is obscured by the moon.
- Tidal Friction: strain produced in a celestial body (such as the Earth or Moon) that undergoes cyclic variations in gravitational attraction as it orbits, or is orbited by, a second body.
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Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
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Photo of 1919 Total Solar Eclipse
Credit: ESO/Landessternwarte Heidelberg-Königstuhl/F. W. Dyson, A. S. Eddington, & C. Davidson
eso.org/public/images/potw1926a
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REFERENCES
**************
Espenak, Fred. “NASA - Eclipses and the Saros.” eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEsaros/SEsaros.html
Guglielmi, Giorgia. “Three Times Scientists Learned Something from Solar Eclipses—and Three Times They Were Tricked.” www.science.org/content/article/three-times-scientists-learned-something-solar-eclipses-and-three-times-they-were
Interrante, Abbey. “NASA Selects 5 Experiments to Study 2024 Total Solar Eclipse.” NASA, 20 June 2023, www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2023/sun/science-in-the-shadows-nasa-selects-5-experiments-for-2024-total-solar-eclipse
Littmann, Mark, and Fred Espenak. Totality : The Great American Eclipses of 2017 and 2024. Oxford, United Kingdom, Oxford University Press, 2017
Perkins, Sid. “Ancient Eclipses Show Earth’s Rotation Is Slowing.” www.science.org/content/article/ancient-eclipses-show-earth-s-rotation-slowing
Redd, Nola Taylor. “Here’s What Scientists Have Learned from Total Solar Eclipses.” www.space.com/36785-solar-eclipse-science-throughout-history.html
Steel, Duncan. Eclipse : The Celestial Phenomenon That Changed the Course of History. London, Headline Book Pub, 1999.
Stephenson, F. R., et al. “Measurement of the Earth’s Rotation: 720 BC to AD 2015.” Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, vol. 472, no. 2196, Dec. 2016, p. 20160404, doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2016.0404
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Hormones: chemical messengers that are secreted directly into the blood, which carries them to organs and tissues of the body to exert their functions
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REFERENCES
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Hollender C, Dardick C (2015). Molecular basis of angiosperm tree architecture. New Phytol. 206(2):541-56. doi.org/10.1111/nph.13204.
Li L, Zhang Y, Zheng T, Zhuo X, Li P, Qiu L, Liu W, Wang J, Cheng T, Zhang Q (2021). Comparative gene expression analysis reveals that multiple mechanisms regulate the weeping trait in Prunus mume. Sci Rep 29;11(1):2675. doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-81892-3.
Liu J, Zeng Y, Yan P, He C, and Zhang J (2017). Transcriptional and Hormonal Regulation of Weeping Trait in Salix matsudana. Genes 8(12): 359. doi.org/10.3390/genes8120359
Remphrey, William R.; Pearn, Linda P. (2006). Crown architecture development in Salix ‘Prairie Cascade’, a pendulous willow. Canadian Journal of Botany, 84(10): 1531–1541. doi.org/10.1139/b06-115
Santamour F & McArdle A (1988). Cultivars of Salix babylonica and other Weeping Willows. Journal of Arboriculture 14: 180-184. doi.org/10.48044/jauf.1988.044
Sugano M, Nakagawa Y, Nyunoya H, Nakamura T (2004). Expression of gibberellin 3β-hydroxylase gene in a gravi-response mutant, weeping Japanese flowering cherry. Biological Sciences in Space 18 (4): 261-266. doi.org/10.2187/bss.18.261
Zhang, Y., T. Zheng, X. Zhuo and Q. Zhang, 2019. Morphological and genetic studies on weeping tree architecture in ornamental plants. Intl. J. Agric. Biol., 22: 1037–1042. doi.org/10.17957/IJAB/15.1166
PFAS - also known as the “forever chemicals” we use in all sorts of household products - are able to cause all sorts of health problems without ever really reacting with anything
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- PFAS: A class of man-made molecules consisting of a fully (per) or partly (poly) fluorinated carbon chain connected to different functional groups.
- Teflon: A type of PFAS - PTFE - used in making nonstick coating for cookware.
- Fatty Acid: A hydrocarbon chain terminating with a carboxylic acid group.
- Albumin: The main protein of human blood plasma.
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REFERENCES
**************
Bothun, Geoffrey D. (2023). Personal Communication. Professor and Chair of Chemical Engineering, URI. https://web.uri.edu/engineering/meet/gbothun/
Belcher, Scott. (2023). Personal Communication. Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University. https://bio.sciences.ncsu.edu/people/smbelch2/
Dombrowski, Paul M. et al. (2018). Technology review and evaluation of different chemical oxidation conditions on treatability of PFAS. Remediation. 28:2 (135-150). onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/rem.21555
Fedorenko, Michael et al. (2021). Dominant Entropic Binding of Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) to Albumin Protein Revealed by 19F NMR. Chemosphere. 263. Retrieved from: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8479757
Fenton, Suzanne E. et al. (2020). Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substance Toxicity and Human Health Review: Current State of Knowledge and Strategies for Informing Future Research. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 40:3 (606-630). setac.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/etc.4890
Goodrich, Jackie. (2023). Personal Communication. Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan. https://sph.umich.edu/faculty-profiles/goodrich-jaclyn.html
Jackson, Thomas W. et al. (2021). Rapid Characterization of Human Serum Albumin Binding for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Using Differential Scanning Fluorimetry. Environ Sci Technol. 55:18 (12291-13001). ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8651256
O’Hagan, David. (2008). Understanding organofluorine chemistry. An introduction to the C–F bond. Chemical Society Reviews. 37, 308-319. pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2008/CS/B711844A
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2023). Our Current Understanding of the Human Health and Environmental Risks of PFAS. Retrieved from: epa.gov/pfas/our-current-understanding-human-health-and-environmental-risks-pfas
Wani, Ab Latif, Anjum Ara, and Jawed Ahmad Usmani. (2015). Lead toxicity: a review. Interdiscip Toxicol. 8:2 (55-64). ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4961898
Wisconsin Department of Health Services. (2023). Chemicals: Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl (PFAS) Substances. Retrieved from: dhs.wisconsin.gov/chemical/pfas.htm
Elephants might be strong, but they are weak compared to ants because ants have certain advantages that allow them to outlift their larger competitors.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Exoskeleton: a rigid external covering for the body in some invertebrate animals, especially arthropods, providing both support and protection.
- Endoskeleton: an internal skeleton, such as the bony or cartilaginous skeleton of vertebrates.
- Leverage: the exertion of force by means of a lever or an object used in the manner of a lever.
- Square-cube law: a mathematical principle, applied in a variety of scientific fields, which describes the relationship between the volume and the surface area as a shape's size increases or decreases.
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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
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REFERENCES
**************
Aaron, S. F. “The Muscular Power of Insects.” Scientific American, vol. 147, no. 3, 1932, pp. 148–150, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24966025
Bretscher, Heidi, and Michael B. O’Connor. “The Role of Muscle in Insect Energy Homeostasis.” Frontiers in Physiology, vol. 11, 22 Oct. 2020, p. 580687, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7649811, doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2020.580687
Burd, M. “Body Size Effects on Locomotion and Load Carriage in the Highly Polymorphic Leaf-Cutting Ants Atta Colombica and Atta Cephalotes.” Behavioral Ecology, vol. 11, no. 2, 1 Mar. 2000, pp. 125–131, doi.org/10.1093/beheco/11.2.125.
Harrison, Jon F., et al. “How Locusts Breathe.” Physiology, vol. 28, no. 1, Jan. 2013, pp. 18–27, doi.org/10.1152/physiol.00043.2012
“Insect Respiration - Amateur Entomologists’ Society (AES).” Amentsoc.org, 2019, http://www.amentsoc.org/insects/fact-files/respiration.html
Molting and the Exoskeleton: A Double-Edged Sword - Understanding Evolution. 10 May 2021, http://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-arthropod-story/an-evolutionary-constraint-small-size/molting-and-the-exoskeleton-a-double-edged-sword/
Nguyen, Vienny, et al. “The Exoskeletal Structure and Tensile Loading Behavior of an Ant Neck Joint.” Journal of Biomechanics, vol. 47, no. 2, Jan. 2014, pp. 497–504, doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2013.10.053.
Reinhold Hustert, and M Baldus. “Ballistic Movements of Jumping Legs Implemented as Variable Components of Cricket Behaviour.” The Journal of Experimental Biology, 1 Dec. 2010, doi.org/10.1242/jeb.043943
Rospars, Jean-Pierre, and Nicole Meyer-Vernet. “Force per Cross-Sectional Area from Molecules to Muscles: A General Property of Biological Motors.” Royal Society Open Science, vol. 3, no. 7, 20 July 2016, doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160313
Segre, Paolo S., and Ebony D. Taylor. “Large Ants Do Not Carry Their Fair Share: Maximal Load-Carrying Performance of Leaf-Cutter Ants (Atta Cephalotes).” The Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 222, no. 12, 28 May 2019, p. jeb199240, doi.org/10.1242/jeb.199240
staff, Science X. “Breathing Easy: When It Comes to Oxygen, a Bug’s Life Is Full of It.” Phys.org, Phys.org, 29 Apr. 2007, phys.org/news/2007-04-easy-oxygen-bug-life-full.html
Sutton, Gregory P. “Animal Biomechanics: A New Silent Partner in the Control of Motion.” Current Biology, vol. 23, no. 15, Aug. 2013, pp. R651–R652, doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.06.052
Tajiri, Reiko, et al. “Joint Morphology in the Insect Leg: Evolutionary History Inferred from Notch Loss-of-Function Phenotypes in Drosophila.” Development, vol. 138, no. 21, 1 Nov. 2011, pp. 4621–4626, doi.org/10.1242/dev.067330
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Oceanic dispersal: A type of biological dispersal where terrestrial animals transfer from one land mass to another via a sea crossing.
- Rafting event: Oceanic dispersal that happens via floating vegetation.
- Platyrrhini: The so-called “New World Monkeys” that descended from African simians that arrived in South America roughly 30-40 million years ago.
- South Equatorial Current: A current maintained by the trade winds that flows westward along the equator.
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REFERENCES
**************
Carlos G. Schrago , Claudia A. M. Russo, Timing the Origin of New World Monkeys, Molecular Biology and Evolution, Volume 20, Issue 10, October 2003, Pages 1620–1625. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msg172
Defler, T.R. (2018). Platyrrhine Monkeys: The Fossil Evidence. Topics in Geobiology. Retrieved from: link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-98449-0_8
Drury, S. (2020). How did monkeys get to South America? Earth Logs. Retrieved from:
earthlogs.org/2020/04/14/how-did-monkeys-get-to-south-america
Queiroz, A. (2004). The REsurrection of Oceanic Dispersal in Historical Biogeography. Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 20:2 (68-73). Retrieved from: sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169534704003362
Ali, J., Huber, M. Mammalian biodiversity on Madagascar controlled by ocean currents. Nature 463, 653–656 (2010). Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1038/nature08706
Black, R. (2020). More Than 30 Million Years Ago, Monkeys Rafted Across the Atlantic to South America. Smithsonian. Retrieved from: smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/monkeys-raft-across-atlantic-twice-180974637
Lawton, G. (2021). On a Raft and a Prayer. NewScientist. 252:3365-3366 (50-52). Retrieved from: sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0262407921022727
Ali, Jason. (2023). Direct Communication. DEpartment of Earth Science, University of Hong Kong. https://www.earthsciences.hku.hk/people/academic-staff/dr-ali-jason
In the future, humans will likely die of a very different suite of causes than we do now, thanks to advances in healthcare, an aging population, and changes in the environment.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Global Burden of Disease Study: A comprehensive look at morbidity and mortality that measures lost human potential due to ill health caused by disease.
- Aging-associated Diseases: Diseases that increase in frequency with senescence, including atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease, cancer, arthritis, cataracts, osteoporosis, type 2 diabetes, hypertension and Alzheimer's disease.
- Global Catastrophic Risk: A risk that could inflict serious damage to human well-being on a global scale.
- Doomsday Clock: A metaphor that represents how close humanity is to self-destruction.
- Antiretroviral Therapy: A combination of drugs that suppresses HIV replication in infected individuals.
- PrEP: Pre-exposure prophylactic medications that work to prevent at-risk individuals from contracting HIV.
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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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REFERENCES
**************
Ritchie, H., Spooner, F., and Roser, M. (2019). “Causes of Death.” Our World in Data. ourworldindata.org/causes-of-death
Mecklin, J. (2023). “A time of unprecedented danger: It is 90 seconds to midnight.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. storage.pardot.com/878782/1674512728rAkm0Vt3/2023_doomsday_clock_statement.pdf
Fuller, R. et al. (2022). “Pollution and Health: A Progress Update.” The Lancet. 6:6 (535-537). thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(22)00090-0/fulltext
Atella V, Piano Mortari A, Kopinska J, Belotti F, Lapi F, Cricelli C, Fontana L. “Trends in age-related disease burden and healthcare utilization.” Aging Cell. 2019 Feb;18(1):e12861. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30488641
Mathers CD, Loncar D. Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Med. 2006 Nov;3(11):e442. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1664601
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Fecal pap: a mixture of contents from an herbivore mother's caecum that colonizes the joey's gut with bacteria.
- Marsupial: a mammal of an order whose members are born incompletely developed and are typically carried and suckled in a pouch on the mother's belly.
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Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Toby Hendy @tibees | Koala voice
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Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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OUR STAFF
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REFERENCES
**************
Blyton, M. D. J., et al. (2019). Faecal inoculations alter the gastrointestinal microbiome and allow dietary expansion in a wild specialist herbivore, the koala. Animal Microbiome, 1(1). doi.org/10.1186/s42523-019-0008-0
Can you teach koalas new tricks? (n.d.). ScienceDaily. Retrieved July 19, 2023, from sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/08/160804101628.htm
Clode, D. (2022, September 15). Friday essay: the koala – when it’s smart to be slow. The Conversation. theconversation.com/friday-essay-the-koala-when-its-smart-to-be-slow-187003
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