Updated September 2026, 2 weeks ago

$Principles of X-rays (1960) Wilhelm Röntgens accidental discovery of X-rays in 1895 revolutionized science and medicine. While repeating an experiment on cathode rays, he observed a mysterious fluorescence emanating from his equipment, far beyond the reach of the known rays. This led him to investigate a new, penetrating form of radiation, which he termed X-rays. His initial experiments revealed their ability to pass through solid objects, famously producing the first radiograph of his wifes hand. The medical community quickly recognized the diagnostic power of X-rays, leading to their widespread adoption in surgery and treatment. Further research by scientists like Laue and the Braggs established X-rays as electromagnetic waves with wavelengths shorter than ultraviolet light, and their diffraction by crystals opened up the field of X-ray crystallography, providing insights into atomic structure and the composition of matter. Today, X-rays are a crucial tool in non-destructive testing, industrial quality control, and advanced medical imaging. Keywords: X-rays, Röntgen, cathode rays, fluorescence, radiography, medical diagnosis, crystallography, electromagnetic waves, diffraction, atomic structure, non-destructive testing, science, medicine$

Afghanistan: Pushtun People Making Felt (1968)

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