Uploaded August 2025 | Updated September 2026, 2 weeks ago
Diatomic Elements
Dr. DeBacco
Diatomic elements
Diatomic elements are pure elements that naturally form molecules made of two atoms bonded together.
Almost never found alone in nature because they’re more stable as a pair.
The 7 Diatomic Elements
Why They Form Pairs
These elements are nonmetals with high electronegativity.
They bond with themselves to complete their valence shells, following the octet rule.
This makes them more stable than existing as single atoms.
Where They Can be Found
O₂ and N₂ make up ~99% of Earth’s atmosphere.
H₂ is used in fuel cells and rockets.
Cl₂ and F₂ are key in disinfectants and industrial processes.
Link to Lecture Slides: drive.google.com/file/d/1Vk-WRglROD5Mejb6DS5nvzLvbliYyAVK/view?usp=drive_link
*Due to the description character limit the full work cited for "Diatomic Elements" can be viewed at... docs.google.com/document/d/1csgiMtG5kTXqioRa0XEG05XPIaAMzJfW/edit?usp=drive_link&ouid=104237452697237972847&rtpof=true&sd=true
Diatomic Elements
Dr. DeBacco
Diatomic elements
Diatomic elements are pure elements that naturally form molecules made of two atoms bonded together.
Almost never found alone in nature because they’re more stable as a pair.
The 7 Diatomic Elements
Why They Form Pairs
These elements are nonmetals with high electronegativity.
They bond with themselves to complete their valence shells, following the octet rule.
This makes them more stable than existing as single atoms.
Where They Can be Found
O₂ and N₂ make up ~99% of Earth’s atmosphere.
H₂ is used in fuel cells and rockets.
Cl₂ and F₂ are key in disinfectants and industrial processes.
Link to Lecture Slides: drive.google.com/file/d/1Vk-WRglROD5Mejb6DS5nvzLvbliYyAVK/view?usp=drive_link
*Due to the description character limit the full work cited for "Diatomic Elements" can be viewed at... docs.google.com/document/d/1csgiMtG5kTXqioRa0XEG05XPIaAMzJfW/edit?usp=drive_link&ouid=104237452697237972847&rtpof=true&sd=true



![Agouti Mouse Model To Study Early Nutritional Effects on Epigenetic Gene Regulation
Agouti Mouse Model To Study Early Nutritional Effects on Epigenetic Gene Regulation
Professor DeBacco
YouTube Video
Low Dose Rad 2018. (2019, November 14). The Agouti Mouse Study 1080 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VM37fh5ykbg
What is Epigenetics
Epigenetic- literally means “in addition to changes in genetic sequence”
The term has evolved to include any process that alters gene activity without changing the DNA sequence, and leads to modifications that can be transmitted to daughter cells.
There likely will continue to be debate over exactly what the term means and what it covers.
Perhaps the best known epigenetic process, in part because it has been easiest to study with existing technology, is DNA methylation. This is the addition or removal of a methyl group (CH3), predominantly where cytosine bases occur consecutively.
DNA methylation was first confirmed to occur in human cancer in 1983, and has since been observed in many other illnesses and health conditions.
Second World War (Winter of 1944-45)
German blockade caused famine in the Western provinces of the Netherlands
A legacy longitudinal study 5 decades later showed that people born to mothers who were in the first three months of pregnancy during the famine had significantly higher incidences of obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer in their adult lives.
Fetal Susceptibility Hypothesis
Traditional Genetics could not explain this
However, in 2003 a study conducted by Robert A. Waterland and Randy L. Jirtle with mice may provide some supporting data…
Transposable Elements: Targets for Early Nutritional Effects on Epigenetic Gene Regulation
Waterland, R. A., & Jirtle, R. L. (2003). Transposable elements: targets for early nutritional effects on epigenetic gene regulation. Molecular and cellular biology.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1128/mcb.23.15.5293-5300.2003
Agouti Mice
Large yellow agouti mice
Demonstrated fetal susceptibility and opened up a new way to look at genetics
Genetic mutations were thought to be the cause of diseases, and while this may be the reason in some cases it is not the only cause.
Gene Regulation
Methylation- CH3, can block or turn off (silence) a gene
Each cell contains all of your DNA (few exceptions Ex. red blood cells), but look very different think of your skin cells vs your liver cells.
This is due to gene expression
Eye cells contain the genetics to produce hydrochloric acid, however good thing this gene is not expressed in your eyes, but is activated in your stomach.
Nature vs Nurture
Early in development signals are given to differentiate cells and these signals are carried on as the organism grows and develops.
The genetic signaling can be influenced by environmental factors (Ex. Stress, diet)
Environmental Epigenetics
At critical stages of development the environmental factors can have a greater influence on the final gene expression.
Shortly after fertilization is a critical time point as this is when the cells are first developing.
Famine in mothers while early in pregnancy impacting their developing fetus.
Agouti Gene
All mammals have an agouti gene that controls distribution of dark pigment.
Genetically identical mice
Some brown and stay a normal weight their entire life
Some tan/yellow and are obese and have high incidence of diabetes and cancer.
Differences due to changes in gene expression
Change is the result of a Transposon- viral segment of DNA that moves (jumps) to different positions in a cells genome.
This can alter gene expression
Tan/Yellow Mice- Transposon physically located next to the Agouti gene resulting in the over production resulting in the tan/yellow coloration AND also blocked the feeding control center in the brain
This resulted in them being obese, but this is also inheritable
Impact of Mothers Diet
The incorporation of methyl groups in the fed essentially silenced (turned off) the transposon
Results in the return to the normal agouti gene with mice being brown and normal weight.
Unmethylated early in development results in the activation of the agouti gene through the animals entire cells continuously throughout its life resulting in the animal always being yellow.
T
Environments Impact on Genes
Environmental factors can reprogram genetic inheritance
For better or worse
Counter Point
During reproduction, mammalian cells go through two full cycles of demethylation.
That process strips all methyl groups, and thus epigenetic information, from germ and embryonic cells.
To date, there is no evidence that epigenetic information can survive two rounds of this biochemical cleansing.
Link to Lecture Slides:
*Due to the description character limit the full work cited for Agouti Mouse Model To Study Early Nutritional Effects on Epigenetic Gene Regulation can be viewed at... https://docs.google.com/document/d/1vtEaBFiWfJcege_bn3Rg_1UZB4zbjgCS/edit?usp=drive_link&ouid=104237452697237972847&rtpof=true&sd=true Agouti Mouse Model To Study Early Nutritional Effects on Epigenetic Gene Regulation](https://i.ytimg.com/vi/sfbCZvLYp60/mqdefault.jpg)






