MinuteEarth
This Is Not A Pine Tree
updated
Trees are a super-efficient way to sequester carbon, but since planting the wrong trees in the wrong place can do more harm than good, we need to go about tree planting more carefully.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Afforestation: the process of introducing trees and tree seedlings to an area that has previously not been forested.
- Carbon sequestration: a process by which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and held in solid or liquid form.
- Ecological restoration: the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed.
- Moor: wet, upland habitats characterized by low-growing shrubs, grasses, bog-mosses, and damp, peaty soils.
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CREDITS
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Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
David Goldenberg | Director
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Merch | http://dftba.com/minuteearth
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Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
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Bond WJ et al. 2019. The trouble with trees: Afforestation plans for Africa. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 34(11): 963-965. doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2019.08.003
Buscardo E et al. 2008. The early effects of afforestation on biodiversity of grasslands in Ireland. Biodiversity and Conservation 17: 1057-1072. doi.org/10.1007/s10531-007-9275-2
Dass, P., et al. 2018. Grasslands may be more reliable carbon sinks than forests in California. Environmental Research Letters 13: 074027. doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aacb39
Di Sacco A, et al. 2021. Ten golden rules for reforestation to optimize carbon sequestration, biodiversity recovery, and livelihood benefits. Global Change Biology 27(7): 1328-1348.
doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15498
Ferriera J et al. 2018. Carbon-focused conservation may fail to protect the biodiverse tropical forests. Nature Climate Change 8: 744-749. doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0225-7
Friggens NL et al. 2020. Tree planting on organic soils does not result in net carbon sequestration on decadal time scales. Global Change Biology 26(9): 5178-5188. doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15229
Lewis SL et al. 2019. Comment: Restoring natural forests is the best way to remove atmospheric carbon. Nature 568: 25-28. doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-01026-8
Hua F. 2022. The biodiversity and ecosystem service contributions and trade-offs of forest restoration approaches. Science 376 (6595): 839-844. science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl4649
IPCC. 2002. Climate change and biodiversity. IPCC Technical Paper V. tnrf.org/files/E-INFO_IPCC_2002_Climate_Change_and_Biodiversity_0.pdf
Jackson RB et al. 2005. Trading water for carbon with biological carbon sequestration. Science 310(5766):1944-1947. doi.org/10.1126/science.1119282
Temperton VM et al. 2019. Step back from the forest and step up to the Bonn Challenge: how a broad ecological perspective can promote successful landscape restoration. Restoration Ecology 27(4): 705-719. doi.org/10.1111/rec.12989
Terrer, C., et al. 2021. A trade-off between plant and soil carbon storage under elevated CO2. Nature 591: 599-603. doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03306-8
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Overpopulation: a situation in which there are too many people for the amount of food, materials, and space available.
- Underpopulation: a situation in which there are too few people to realize the economic potential of an area or support its population's standard of living.
- Exponential growth: a pattern of data that shows greater increases with passing time, creating the curve of an exponential function.
- Extreme poverty: an income below the international poverty line of ~$2/day
- Total fertility rate: the average number of children born to each woman over her lifetime.
- Population bomb: a theory that the human population would grow faster than available food supplies.
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CREDITS
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David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Lizah van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Merch | http://dftba.com/minuteearth
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Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
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Cohen, J. (1995). Population Growth and Earth's Human Carrying Capacity. Science. 269: 5222. (341-346). science.org/doi/10.1126/science.7618100
Pradhan, E. (2015). Female Education and Childbearing: A Closer Look at the Data. World Bank. blogs.worldbank.org/health/female-education-and-childbearing-closer-look-data
State of the World Population 2022. Seeing the Unseen. The Case for Action in the Neglected Crisis of Unintended Pregnancy. unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/EN_SWP22%20report_0.pdf
Smeeding, T. (2021) Adjusting to the fertility bust, Science, 346, 6206, (163-164). science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1260504
Herrmann, M. (2022). The Global Population Will Soon Reach 8 Billion—Then What? UN Chronicle. un.org/en/un-chronicle/global-population-will-soon-reach-8-billion-then-what
Our World In Data (2019). World Population Growth. ourworldindata.org/world-population-growth
Rosling, H. (2018). Factfulness. gapminder.org/factfulness-book
Energy use can be confusing – I mean, how do you compare gasoline in your car to electricity piped to your house? That's why we made these things spud-tacularly simple.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Calorie: the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water through 1°C (now usually defined as 4.1868 joules).
- Energy: power derived from the utilization of physical or chemical resources, especially to provide light and heat or to work machines.
- Joule: the SI unit of work or energy, equal to the work done by a force of one newton when its point of application moves one meter in the direction of action of the force, equivalent to one 3600th of a watt-hour.
- Watt: the SI unit of power, equivalent to one joule per second, corresponding to the power in an electric circuit in which the potential difference is one volt and the current one ampere.
- Watt-hour: a measure of electrical energy equivalent to a power consumption of one watt for one hour.
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If you like what we do, you can help us!:
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CREDITS
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Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Lizah Van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Merch | http://dftba.com/minuteearth
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REFERENCES
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“All-Electric Vehicles” (2017) fueleconomy.gov/feg/evtech.shtml
“Apple’s Electricity Use 2020.” Statista, statista.com/statistics/531938/electricity-consumed-by-apple-inc-globally
“Statistical Review of World Energy.” BP Global, 2021, bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy.html
“Cameco U101 - Fuel Manufacturing.” cameco.com/uranium_101/fuel-processing/fuel-manufacturing
“FoodData Central.” Usda.gov, 2019, fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170026/nutrients
“This Is What It Costs to Light 7 of the Brightest Landmarks in the World for a Year.” Business Insider, businessinsider.com/the-cost-of-lighting-landmarks-around-the-world-2017-7
Ritchie, Hannah, et al. “Energy Production and Consumption.” Our World in Data, 2020, ourworldindata.org/energy-production-consumption
"The shipping industry looks for green fuels." Acs.org, 2022, cen.acs.org/environment/greenhouse-gases/shipping-industry-looks-green-fuels/100/i8
For thousands of years, water was thought to be an element. That is, until some of the greatest chemists in the world managed to crack it open.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Chemical element: is a species of atoms that have a given number of protons in their nuclei. Chemical elements cannot be broken down into simpler substances by any chemical reaction.
- Atom: is the smallest unit of ordinary matter that forms a chemical element.
- Molecule: is a group of two or more atoms held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds.
- Inflammable air: an old name for hydrogen.
- Hydrogen: is the most abundant chemical substance in the universe. Early chemists identified hydrogen gas because it was colorless, odorless and highly combustible. Hydrogen means "maker of water" in Greek.
- Dephlogisticated air: an old name for oxygen.
- Oxygen: is Earth's most abundant element. Early chemists identified oxygen gas because it was colorless, odorless and was essential for respiration and combustion.
- Diatomic molecules: are molecules composed of only two atoms, of the same or different chemical elements. At standard conditions, both hydrogen and oxygen are gasses of diatomic molecules (H2 and O2, respectively).
- Water: is an inorganic, transparent, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms. It is vital for all known forms of life. Its chemical formula, H2O, indicates that each of its molecules contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms.
- Combustion (or burning): is a chemical reaction between a fuel and an oxidizing agent (like oxygen gas), that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke.
- Electrolysis: is a technique that uses direct electric current to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction.
- Avogadro's Law (sometimes referred to as Avogadro's hypothesis): is an experimental gas law that states that equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, have the same number of molecules.
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CREDITS
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Ever Salazar | Co-writer, Narrator and Co-director
Cameron Duke | Co-writer and Co-director
Arcadi Garcia Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Merch | http://dftba.com/minuteearth
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Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
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Cavendish, H. (1784), XIII. Experiments on air. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. 74:119–153. doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1784.0014
Watt, J. (1784), XXV. Thoughts on the constituent parts of water and of dephlogisticated air. Phil. Trans. R. Soc.74. 329–353. doi.org/10.1098/rstl.1784.0026
Lavoisier, A. (1789). Elements of Chemistry. Chapter VIII, p.87-102. gutenberg.org/ebooks/30775
(Original: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8615746s)
Dalton, J. (1808). A New System of Chemical Philosophy. Part II, Chapter V, Section 1, p.272-276 and p.561 (Plate 5). doi.org/10.5479/sil.324338.39088000885681
Cannizzaro, S. (1858). Sketch of a Course of Chemical Philosophy. p.321. archive.org/details/sketchofcourseof00cannrich
James Watt, and the Discovery of the Composition of Water. Nature 57:546–551 (1898). doi.org/10.1038/057546b0
West, J. B. (2014), Henry Cavendish (1731–1810): hydrogen, carbon dioxide, water, and weighing the world. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 307: L1–L6. doi.org/10.1152/ajplung.00067.2014
Held, L. (2017). Avogadro's Hypothesis after 200 Years. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 5(10), 1718 - 1722. doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2017.051007
Katz, E. (2021), Electrochemical contributions: William Nicholson (1753–1815). Electrochem. Sci. Adv., 1: e2160003. doi.org/10.1002/elsa.202160003
The concept of warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals is outdated because there are actually tons of different animal thermoregulation strategies.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Thermoregulation: the strategy through which the body maintains its internal temperature.
- Endotherm: an animal that generates most of its heat internally.
- Ectotherm: an animal that relies on environmental heat sources.
- Mesotherm: an animal with an intermediate heat generating strategy.
- Poikilotherm: an animal whose internal temperature varies considerably.
- Heterotherm: an animal that sometimes keeps its body temperature the same and sometimes lets it vary.
- Homeotherm: an animal whose internal temperature does not change much.
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If you like what we do, you can help us!:
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CREDITS
*********
David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Aldo de Vos | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Merch | http://dftba.com/minuteearth
MinuteEarth Explains Book | minuteearth.com/books
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Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
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Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
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Tøien, Ø., Blake, J. & Barnes, B.M. Thermoregulation and energetics in hibernating black bears: metabolic rate and the mystery of multi-day body temperature cycles. J Comp Physiol B 185, 447–461 (2015). doi.org/10.1007/s00360-015-0891-y
Paladino, F.V., O’Connor, M.P., Spotila, J.R. 1990. Metabolism of Leatherback Turtles, Gigantothermy, and Thermoregulation of Dinosaurs. Nature. Vol.344;858-860. REtrieved from: nature.com/articles/344858a0
Morrissette, J.M. (2003). Characterization of ryanodine receptor and Ca2+-ATPase isoforms in the thermogenic heater organ of blue marlin (Makaira nigricans). Journal of Experimental Biology, 206(5), 805-812. Retrieved from: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12547935
Polymeropoulos, Elias. (2022) Personal Communication. University of Tasmania. https://www.utas.edu.au/profiles/staff/imas/elias-polymeropoulos
Two mushroom guilds with vastly different strategies are locked in competition for forest dominance.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Fungi: Members of a eukaryotic kingdom that have chitin in their cell walls and do not photosynthesize.
- Ectomycorrhizal Fungi: Fungi that form a symbiotic relationship with the roots of certain trees.
- Symbiosis: A close and long-term relationship between two unlike organisms.
- Saprotrophic Fungi: Fungi that decompose the remains of other biological entities.
- Gadgil Effect: The phenomenon that occurs when saprotrophic and mycorrhizal fungi compete in forest soils.
- Volatile Organic Compounds: Organic compounds that easily evaporate at room temperature.
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If you like what we do, you can help us!:
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CREDITS
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David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Merch | http://dftba.com/minuteearth
MinuteEarth Explains Book | minuteearth.com/books
Youtube | youtube.com/MinuteEarth
TikTok | tiktok.com/@minuteearth
Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
Instagram | instagram.com/minute_earth
Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
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Streiblová, E., Gryndlerová, H. and Gryndler, M. (2012), Truffle brûlé: an efficient fungal life strategy. FEMS Microbiol Ecol, 80: 1-8. doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6941.2011.01283.x
Fernandez, C.W. and Kennedy, P.G. (2016), Revisiting the ‘Gadgil effect’: do interguild fungal interactions control carbon cycling in forest soils?. New Phytol, 209: 1382-1394. doi.org/10.1111/nph.13648
Ogura-Tsujita, Y., Yukawa, T. & Kinoshita, A. Evolutionary histories and mycorrhizal associations of mycoheterotrophic plants dependent on saprotrophic fungi. J Plant Res 134, 19–41 (2021). doi.org/10.1007/s10265-020-01244-6
Miyauchi, S., Kiss, E., Kuo, A. et al. Large-scale genome sequencing of mycorrhizal fungi provides insights into the early evolution of symbiotic traits. Nat Commun 11, 5125 (2020). doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18795-w
Varga, T., Krizsán, K., Földi, C. et al. Megaphylogeny resolves global patterns of mushroom evolución. Nat Ecol Evol 3, 668–678 (2019). doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-0834-1
Kennedy, Peter. (2022) Personal Communication. University of Minnesota, College of Biological Sciences. https://cbs.umn.edu/kennedy-lab
How do you count things you don't know about?
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with this keyword:
- Species accumulation curve: a graph recording the cumulative number of species recorded as a function of the cumulative effort expended searching for them.
SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH
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If you like what we do, you can help us!:
- Become our patron: patreon.com/MinuteEarth
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CREDITS
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Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Lizah van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Aldo de Vos | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
************
Merch | http://dftba.com/minuteearth
MinuteEarth Explains Book | minuteearth.com/books
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Instagram | instagram.com/minute_earth
Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Beech E, Rivers M, Oldfield S, Smith PP (2017) Global Tree Search: The first complete global database of tree species and country distributions. J. Sustain. For. 36, 454–489. doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2017.1310049
Cazzolla Gatti, R, et al. (2022) The number of tree species on Earth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 119 (6): e2115329119. doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2115329119
Chao, A. and Chiu, C. H. (2016). Species richness: estimation and
comparison. Wiley StatsRef: Statistics Reference Online. 1-26. http://chao.stat.nthu.edu.tw/wordpress/paper/119.pdf
Chiu CH, Chao A (2016) Estimating and comparing microbial diversity in the presence of sequencing errors. PeerJ 4, e1634. doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1634
ter Steege, H., et al. (2013) Hyperdominance in the Amazonian tree flora. Science 342, 1243092 doi.org/10.1126/science.1243092
LEARN MORE
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Epiphyte: a plant that grows on another plant but does not feed from it
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CREDITS
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Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Lizah van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Aldo de Vos | Music
Thanks to Prof. Jon Van Stan for sharing his expertise in wet plants: twitter.com/Prof_Van_Stan
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
************
Merch | http://dftba.com/minuteearth
MinuteEarth Explains Book | minuteearth.com/books
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Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Gotsch, S., Nadkarni, N., & Amici, A. (2016). The functional roles of epiphytes and arboreal soils in tropical montane cloud forests. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 32(5), 455-468. doi.org/10.1017/S026646741600033X
Hargis H, Gotsch SG, Porada P, Moore GW, Ferguson B, Van Stan JT II. (2019) Arboreal Epiphytes in the Soil-Atmosphere Interface: How Often Are the Biggest “Buckets” in the Canopy Empty? Geosciences 9(8):342. doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9080342
Hembre K, Meyer A, Route T, Glauser A and Stanton DE (2021) Stand-Level Variation Drives Canopy Water Storage by Non-vascular Epiphytes Across a Temperate-Boreal Ecotone. Front. For. Glob. Change 4:704190. doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2021.704190
Nadkarni, N. M. (1984). Epiphyte Biomass and Nutrient Capital of a Neotropical Elfin Forest. Biotropica, 16(4), 249–256. doi.org/10.2307/2387932
Porada, P., Van Stan, J.T. & Kleidon, A. (2018). Significant contribution of non-vascular vegetation to global rainfall interception. Nature Geosci 11, 563–567. doi.org/10.1038/s41561-018-0176-7
Stanton, D.E., Huallpa Chávez, J., Villegas, L., Villasante, F., Armesto, J., Hedin, L.O. and Horn, H. (2014), Epiphytes improve host plant water use by microenvironment modification. Funct Ecol, 28: 1274-1283. doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12249
Stuntz, S., Simon, U. & Zotz, G. (2002) Rainforest air-conditioning: the moderating influence of epiphytes on the microclimate in tropical tree crowns. Int J Biometeorol 46, 53–59. doi.org/10.1007/s00484-001-0117-8
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Most animals on earth are bioluminescent, but almost all of them live in the ocean - and scientists aren’t sure why.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Bioluminescence: the biochemical emission of light by living organisms such as fireflies and deep-sea fishes.
- Biofluorescence: The emission of previously absorbed light by fluorescent proteins in a living organism.
- Luciferin: an organic substance, present in luminescent organisms such as fireflies, that produces light when oxidized by the action of the enzyme luciferase.
SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH
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If you like what we do, you can help us!:
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CREDITS
*********
Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Aldo de Vos | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
************
Merch | http://dftba.com/minuteearth
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Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
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Belkin, S. Bioluminescence Fundamentals and Applications in Biotechnology - Volume 1. Berlin Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag GmbH, 2014.Davis, Matthew P., et al. “Repeated and Widespread Evolution of Bioluminescence in Marine Fishes.” PLOS ONE, vol. 11, no. 6, 8 June 2016, p. e0155154, doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155154
Delroisse, Jérôme, et al. “Leaving the Dark Side? Insights into the Evolution of Luciferases.” Frontiers in Marine Science, vol. 8, 30 June 2021, doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.673620
Griffiths, Mansel W. “ATP BIOLUMINESCENCE | Application in Hygiene Monitoring.” Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology, 1999, pp. 94–101, doi.org/10.1006/rwfm.1999.0085
Haddock, Steven. Senior Scientist, Monterrey Bay Aquarium - Personal Communication.
Hellinger, Jens, et al. “The Flashlight Fish Anomalops Katoptron Uses Bioluminescent Light to Detect Prey in the Dark.” PLOS ONE, vol. 12, no. 2, 8 Feb. 2017, p. e0170489, doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170489
Marek, Paul, et al. “Bioluminescent Aposematism in Millipedes.” Current Biology, vol. 21, no. 18, Sept. 2011, pp. R680–R681, doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.012
Martini, Séverine, et al. “Distribution and Quantification of Bioluminescence as an Ecological Trait in the Deep Sea Benthos.” Scientific Reports, vol. 9, no. 1, 10 Oct. 2019, doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-50961-z
Martini, Séverine, and Steven H. D. Haddock. “Quantification of Bioluminescence from the Surface to the Deep Sea Demonstrates Its Predominance as an Ecological Trait.” Scientific Reports, vol. 7, no. 1, 4 Apr. 2017, doi.org/10.1038/srep45750
Mofford, David M., et al. “Latent Luciferase Activity in the Fruit Fly Revealed by a Synthetic Luciferin.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 111, no. 12, 10 Mar. 2014, pp. 4443–4448, doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1319300111
Yirka, Bob. “Researchers Seek to Explain Why There Are so Few Land Dwelling Bioluminescent Species.” Phys.org, Phys.org, 23 Aug. 2012, phys.org/news/2012-08-bioluminescent-species.html
We often use decibels, a measure of sound pressure, to describe how loud something is - but loudness is caused by how we perceive sounds, and the two often don't line up.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Decibels (dB): a unit used to measure changes in pressure or power.
- Loudness: the intensity with which a sound is perceived.
- Weighted decibels (dBA): decibels that try to take into account our sensitivity for different frequencies to better approximate loudness.
- Frequency: the rate at which something occurs. In the context of sound it usually means 'sound waves per second'.
- Audible: perceptible for the human ear.
- High sound: a sound that has a high (fast) frequency
- Low sound: a sound that has a low (slow) frequency
- Resonance: When multiple things have a similar frequency they will tend to move together and amplify each other.
- Echolocation: Using sound to "see". Bats use this to hunt in the dark.
- Equal loudness contours: Curves that show the sensitivity of the human ear along the frequency spectrum.
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Kate Yoshida | Script Editor
Cameron Duke | Director and Narrator
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Hawkins, Joseph E. “Human Ear | Structure, Function, & Parts.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 25 Oct. 2018, www.britannica.com/science/ear.Suzuki, Yôiti, and Hisashi Takeshima.
“Equal-Loudness-Level Contours for Pure Tones.” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, vol. 116, no. 2, Aug. 2004, pp. 918–933, 10.1121/1.1763601.
Tosi, Patrizia, et al. “Earthquake Sound Perception.” Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 39, no. 24, 19 Dec. 2012, 10.1029/2012gl054382.
There are two types of rain, and one of them is almost impossible to forecast.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Front: a boundary separating air masses of different characteristics, such as air density, wind, temperature, and humidity
- Frontal rainfall: occurs when a warm air mass comes in contact with a colder air mass
- Convectional rainfall: occurs when the sun's energy heats the surface of the Earth, causing water to evaporate to form water vapour
- Nowcasting: weather forecasting limited to periods less than a few hours
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David Goldenberg | Script Writer and Director
Kate Yoshida | Director
Cameron Duke | Narrator
Arcadi Garcia i Ruis | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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OUR STAFF
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Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Ravuri, S., Lenc, K., Willson, M. et al. (2021) Skilful precipitation nowcasting using deep generative models of radar. Nature 597, 672–677. doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03854-z
Simonin D, Pierce C, Roberts N, Ballard SP and Li Z (2017) Performance of Met Office hourly cycling NWP-based nowcasting for precipitation forecasts. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 143 (708): 2862-2873. doi.org/10.1002/qj.3136
Sun J, Xue M, Wilson JW, Zawadzki I, Ballard SP, Onvlee-Hooimeyer J, Joe P, Barker DM, Li P, Golding B, Xu M, & Pinto J (2014). Use of NWP for Nowcasting Convective Precipitation: Recent Progress and Challenges, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 95(3): 409-426. doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00263.1
Weckwerth T, Parsons DB, Koch SE, Moore JA, Lemone MA, et al. (2004). An Overview of the International H2O Project (IHOP_2002) and Some Preliminary Highlights. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, American Meteorological Society 85 (2): 253 - 277. doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-85-2-253
Wilson, JW, & Roberts RD (2006). Summary of Convective Storm Initiation and Evolution during IHOP: Observational and Modeling Perspective, Monthly Weather Review, 134(1): 23-47. doi.org/10.1175/MWR3069.1
Ye H, Fetzer EJ, Wong S, and Lambrigtsen BH (2017). Rapid decadal convective precipitation increase over Eurasia during the last three decades of the 20th century. Science Advances 3: e1600944. doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1600944
Volcanoes might seem like an unstoppable force of nature - but there is at least one OTHER force on Earth that seems to be able to keep them down.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Decompression Melting: Mantle melting that involves the upward movement of Earth's mostly-solid mantle.
- Flux Melting: Melting that occurs when water and other volatile components are introduced to hot solid rock.
- Glaciation: the process, condition, or result of being covered by glaciers or ice sheets.
- Magma: Hot fluid or semifluid material below or within the earth's crust from which lava and other igneous rock is formed on cooling.
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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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OUR STAFF
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Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
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Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
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Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Aubry, Thomas J., et al. “Impact of Climate Change on Volcanic Processes: Current Understanding and Future Challenges.” Bulletin of Volcanology, vol. 84, no. 6, 18 May 2022, doi.org/10.1007/s00445-022-01562-8
Cooper, Claire L., et al. “Evaluating the Relationship between Climate Change and Volcanism.” Earth-Science Reviews, vol. 177, 1 Feb. 2018, pp. 238–247, doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.11.009
Huybers, Peter, and Charles Langmuir. “Feedback between Deglaciation, Volcanism, and Atmospheric CO2.” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 286, no. 3-4, Sept. 2009, pp. 479–491, doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2009.07.014
Huybers, Peter, and Charles H. Langmuir. “Delayed CO2 Emissions from Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanism as a Possible Cause of Late-Pleistocene Glacial Cycles.” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 457, Jan. 2017, pp. 238–249, doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2016.09.021
Jull, M., and D. McKenzie. “The Effect of Deglaciation on Mantle Melting beneath Iceland.” Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, vol. 101, no. B10, 10 Oct. 1996, pp. 21815–21828, doi.org/10.1029/96jb01308
Maclennan, J., et al. “The Link between Volcanism and Deglaciation in Iceland.” Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, vol. 3, no. 11, Nov. 2002, pp. 1–25, doi.org/10.1029/2001gc000282
Praetorius, Summer, et al. “Interaction between Climate, Volcanism, and Isostatic Rebound in Southeast Alaska during the Last Deglaciation.” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 452, 15 Oct. 2016, pp. 79–89, doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2016.07.033
Rawson, Harriet, et al. “The Magmatic and Eruptive Response of Arc Volcanoes to Deglaciation: Insights from Southern Chile.” Geology, vol. 44, no. 4, 24 Feb. 2016, pp. 251–254, doi.org/10.1130/g37504.1
Swindles, Graeme T., et al. “Climatic Control on Icelandic Volcanic Activity during the Mid-Holocene.” Geology, vol. 46, no. 1, 1 Jan. 2018, pp. 47–50, doi.org/10.1130/G39633.1
Watt, Sebastian F.L., et al. “The Volcanic Response to Deglaciation: Evidence from Glaciated Arcs and a Reassessment of Global Eruption Records.” Earth-Science Reviews, vol. 122, July 2013, pp. 77–102, doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.03.007
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Adaptation: a change or the process of change by which an organism or species becomes better suited to its environment.
- Bird Banding: the practice of catching birds, marking them with an identifying band around the leg, and then releasing them.
- Light Level Geolocator: a lightweight, electronic archival tracking device, usually used in bird migration research to map migration routes, identify important staging areas, and sometimes provide additional ecological information.
- Migration: seasonal movement of animals from one region to another.
- Physiology: the branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts.
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CREDITS
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Cameron Duke | Script Writing, Narration, and Directing
David Goldenberg | Script Writing and Directing
Lizah van der Aart | Illustration and Animation
Ever Salazar | Video Editing
Aldo de Vos | Music
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
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Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
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Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Youtube | youtube.com/MinuteEarth
TikTok | tiktok.com/@minuteearth
Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
Instagram | instagram.com/minute_earth
Website | minuteearth.com
REFERENCES
**************
Both, Christiaan, and Marcel E. Visser. “Adjustment to Climate Change Is Constrained by Arrival Date in a Long-Distance Migrant Bird.” Nature, vol. 411, no. 6835, May 2001, pp. 296–298, 10.1038/35077063
Chernetsov, Nikita, et al. “Migratory Orientation of First-Year White Storks (Ciconia Ciconia): Inherited Information and Social Interactions.” Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 207, no. 6, 22 Feb. 2004, pp. 937–943, 10.1242/jeb.00853
Farnsworth, Andrew, et al. “A Comparison of Nocturnal Call Counts of Migrating Birds and Reflectivity Measurements on Doppler Radar.” Journal of Avian Biology, vol. 35, no. 4, July 2004, pp. 365–369, 10.1111/j.0908-8857.2004.03180.x.
Gilchrist, Grant, et al. “Can Local Ecological Knowledge Contribute to Wildlife Management? Case Studies of Migratory Birds.” Ecology and Society, vol. 10, no. 1, 2005, www.jstor.org/stable/26267752. Gill, Frank B. Ornithology. New York, W.H. Freeman, 1995.
Gill, Robert E., et al. “Crossing the Ultimate Ecological Barrier: Evidence for an 11000-Km-Long Nonstop Flight from Alaska to New Zealand and Eastern Australia by Bar-Tailed Godwits.” Condor, vol. 107, no. 1, 1 Feb. 2005, pp. 1–20, doi.org/10.1650/7613
Greenwood, Jeremy J. D. “Citizens, Science and Bird Conservation.” Journal of Ornithology, vol. 148, no. S1, 10 Nov. 2007, pp. 77–124, 10.1007/s10336-007-0239-9
“Lift from Flow Turning.” Nasa.gov, 2018, www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/right2.html
Orellana-Macías, José M., et al. “Shifts in Crane Migration Phenology Associated with Climate Change in Southwestern Europe.” Avian Conservation and Ecology, vol. 15, no. 1, 2020, 10.5751/ace-01565-150116
“Satellite Telemetry and Its Impact on the Study of Animal Migration | Learn Science at Scitable” www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/satellite-telemetry-and-its-impact-on-the-94842487
Strikwerda, T. E., et al. “Bird-Borne Satellite Transmitter and Location Program.” Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, vol. 7, no. 2, 1986, pp. 203–208, pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/5221497
“The Bar-Tailed Godwit’s Annual Migration Is Utterly Astounding.” Audubon, 1 Sept. 2017, www.audubon.org/news/the-bar-tailed-godwits-annual-migration-utterly-astounding
“The Basics of Bird Migration: How, Why, and Where.” All about Birds, 1 Aug. 2021, www.allaboutbirds.org/news/the-basics-how-why-and-where-of-bird-migration
“Theories about Migration | Understanding Migration.” The RSPB, www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/natures-home-magazine/birds-and-wildlife-articles/migration/understanding-migration
“To the Ends of the Earth | National Geographic Society.” education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ends-earth
Urry, Lisa A, et al. Campbell Biology. 11th ed., New York, Ny, Pearson Education, Inc, 2017.
RESOURCES:
**************
More Information:
WHO Guidelines:
https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/332334/WHO-SRH-20.11-eng.pdf
Kaiser Family Foundation Factsheet:
kff.org/womens-health-policy/fact-sheet/the-availability-and-use-of-medication-abortion
Doctors Without Borders Video Series:
doctorswithoutborders.org/latest/how-ensure-safe-abortion-pills
Planned Parenthood Factsheet:
plannedparenthood.org/learn/abortion/the-abortion-pill
Abortion Pill Info from SASS:
abortionpillinfo.org/en/using-abortion-pills-for-safe-abortion-usa
Legality:
Abortion Laws by Country:
reproductiverights.org/maps/worlds-abortion-laws
Abortion Laws by US State:
reproductiverights.org/maps/abortion-laws-by-state
Abortion Pill Laws By US State:
guttmacher.org/state-policy/explore/medication-abortion
Legal Helpline:
reprolegalhelpline.org
LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Medication abortion/pill-based abortion: an abortion that uses pills, rather than surgical intervention
- Self-managed abortion: a pill-based abortion done by an individual without medical guidance
- Progesterone: a hormone made by the body that plays a role in the menstrual cycle and pregnancy
- Cervix: the narrow passage forming the lower end of the uterus
- Contraction: a shortening of the uterine muscles
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Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Abubeker FA, Lavelanet A, Rodriguez MI, Kim C. (2020). Medical termination for pregnancy in early first trimester (≤ 63 days) using combination of mifepristone and misoprostol or misoprostol alone: a systematic review. BMC Womens Health 20(1):142. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32635921
Allen R & O'Brien BM. (2009) Uses of misoprostol in obstetrics and gynecology. Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology 2(3):159-68. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2760893
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists’ Committee on Practice Bulletins—Gynecology, Society of Family Planning. (2020). Medication Abortion Up to 70 Days of Gestation: ACOG Practice Bulletin, Number 225. Obstetrics and Gynecology 136(4):e31-e47.https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/practice-bulletin/articles/2020/10/medication-abortion-up-to-70-days-of-gestation
Cadepond F, Ulmann A, Baulieu EE. (1997). RU486 (mifepristone): mechanisms of action and clinical uses. Annu Rev Med. 48:129-56. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9046951
Garris R & Kirkwood, C (1989). Misoprostol: A prostaglandin E1 analogue. American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy 46 (10): 2162–2170. academic.oup.com/ajhp/article-abstract/46/10/2162/5174740
Papp C, Schatz F, Krikun G, Hausknecht V, Lockwood CJ. (2000) Biological mechanisms underlying the clinical effects of mifepristone (RU 486) on the endometrium. Early Pregnancy 4(4):230-9. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11742418
Pierce S, Bakker R, Myers DA, Edwards RK. (2018) Clinical Insights for Cervical Ripening and Labor Induction Using Prostaglandins. AJP Rep. 8(4):e307-e314. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6205862
Schreiber CA, Creinin MD, Atrio J, Sonalkar S, Ratcliffe SJ, Barnhart KT. (2018) Mifepristone Pretreatment for the Medical Management of Early Pregnancy Loss. N Engl J Med 378(23):2161-2170. nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejmoa1715726
Lots of geological forces need to come together for continents to form, but they all require one ingredient: water.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Tectonic plate: Earth’s rigid outer layer is broken up into a bunch of pieces, called tectonic plates. Usually people think of tectonic plates as the Earth’s crust, but the plates are actually made of the crust PLUS the very top of the mantle, which is cool enough to be rigid and hard and stuck to the crust. The crust and the top of the mantle together are called the “lithosphere.” Underneath that is a part of the mantle called the “asthenosphere,” which is the part that oozes and flows.
- Subduction Zone: The area where two tectonic plates collide and the denser of the two is forced under and dives down into Earth’s mantle.
- Mariana Trench: The subduction zone where the Pacific Plate slides under the Philippine Plate. The edge of the Philippine plate is kind of pulled down in the process, creating a deep crevice in Earth’s surface, known as a deep ocean trench. The Mariana Trench is the deepest ocean trench in the world.
- Granite: A type of igneous rock formed when magma cools slowly underground (creating relatively large crystals). Granite is different from other igneous rocks like basalt because it has a higher percentage of low-density minerals like quartz and feldspar.
- Oceanic-Continental Convergent Plate Boundary: The boundary between a tectonic plate made of oceanic lithosphere and a tectonic plate made of continental lithosphere. At these “convergent” plate boundaries, the two plates are colliding, and the oceanic plate is forced to subduct, or sink, under the continental plate.
- Ring of Fire: A long stretch around the Pacific Ocean where plates are colliding. The majority of volcanoes and earthquakes in the world take place along the Ring of Fire.
- Silicate minerals: These are the low-density minerals like quartz and feldspar. They contain SiO2. Because silicate minerals are thick/viscous when melted, magma with lots of silica in it forms very explosive volcanoes, like Mt. St. Helens and Mt. Tambora.
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Kate Yoshida | Director
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
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Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
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Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Collins, W.J, et al. (2020). Critical role of water in the formation of continental crust. Nature Geoscience 13, 331–338. Retrieved from: nature.com/articles/s41561-020-0573-6
Collins, W.J. (2022) Personal communication.
Supercontinent History: wikiwand.com/en/Supercontinent_cycle
Continental Record and Formation of Continental Crust: pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article/125/1-2/14/125831/The-continental-record-and-the-generation-of
Continental Crust book chapter: https://geosci.uchicago.edu/~archer/deep_earth_readings/stein.2007.cont_crust_growth_rev.pdf
Our respiratory systems do a great job of protecting us, but they are no match for the smallest pollution particles created by the modern world.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Alveolus: any of the many tiny air sacs of the lungs which allow for rapid gaseous exchange.
- Bronchiole: any of the minute branches into which a bronchus divides.
- PM 2.5: tiny particles or droplets in the air that are two and one half microns or less in width.
- PM 10: inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 10 micrometers and smaller.
- Nasopharynx: the upper part of the pharynx, connecting with the nasal cavity above the soft palate.
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CREDITS
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Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Aldo de Vos | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Cameron Duke
Arcadi Garcia i Rius • David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes
Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
“Data Review: How Many People Die from Air Pollution?” Our World in Data, ourworldindata.org/data-review-air-pollution-deaths
“Fine Particles (PM 2.5) Questions and Answers” www.health.ny.gov/environmental/indoors/air/pmq_a.htm
Hiraiwa, Kunihiko, and Stephan F. van Eeden. “Contribution of Lung Macrophages to the Inflammatory Responses Induced by Exposure to Air Pollutants.” Mediators of Inflammation, vol. 2013, 2013, pp. 1–10, 10.1155/2013/619523.
Hofmann, Werner. “Modelling Inhaled Particle Deposition in the Human Lung—a Review.” Journal of Aerosol Science, vol. 42, no. 10, 1 Oct. 2011, pp. 693–724, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021850211000875, 10.1016/j.jaerosci.2011.05.007.
“Particle Deposition - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics.” Www.sciencedirect.com, www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/particle-deposition
Schwab, Jan-Alexander, and Matthias Zenkel. “Filtration of Particulates in the Human Nose.” The Laryngoscope, vol. 108, no. 1, Jan. 1998, pp. 120–124, 10.1097/00005537-199801000-00023
US EPA, OAR. “Indoor Particulate Matter.” US EPA, 15 Aug. 2014, epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/indoor-particulate-matter
US EPA, OAR. “Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Trends | US EPA.” US EPA, 19 July 2016, www.epa.gov/air-trends/particulate-matter-pm25-trends
Blood-suckers may seem like they have it easy, but feeding on blood comes with a lot of challenges.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Hematophagy: the practice by some species of feeding on the blood of other animals.
- Hemoglobin: a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen.
- Free radicals: unstable atoms that can damage cells.
- Anticoagulant: a substance that inhibits the coagulation of the blood.
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CREDITS
*********
Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Aldo de Vos | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich
Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar
Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
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Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Akhoundi M, Sereno D, Marteau A, Bruel C, Izri A. (2020). Who Bites Me? A Tentative Discriminative Key to Diagnose Hematophagous Ectoparasites Biting Using Clinical Manifestations. Diagnostics 10: 308. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7277957
Benoit JB, Denlinger DL. (2010) Meeting the challenges of on-host and off-host water balance in blood-feeding arthropods. Journal of Insect Physiology 56(10):1366-76. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2918697
Graça-Souza AV, Maya-Monteiro C, Paiva-Silva GO, Braz GR, Paes MC, Sorgine MH, Oliveira MF, Oliveira PL. (2006). Adaptations against heme toxicity in blood-feeding arthropods. Insect Biochemistry % Molecular Biology 36(4):322-35. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16551546
Gillespie RD, Mbow ML, Titus RG (2000) The immunomodulatory factors of bloodfeeding arthropod saliva. Parasite immunology 22: 319–331. onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-3024.2000.00309.x
Kakumanu R, Hodgson WC, Ravi R, Alagon A, Harris RJ, Brust A, Alewood PF, Kemp-Harper BK, Fry BG. (2019). Vampire Venom: Vasodilatory Mechanisms of Vampire Bat (Desmodus rotundus) Blood Feeding. Toxins 11(1):26. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6356263
Pishchany G, Skaar EP. Taste for blood: hemoglobin as a nutrient source for pathogens. PLoS pathogens. 8(8). journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1002535
Toh, SQ, Glanfield, A, Gobert, GN et al. (2010). Heme and blood-feeding parasites: friends or foes?. Parasites Vectors 3:108. parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1756-3305-3-108
LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Sequelae: Chronic complications of an acute condition.
- RSV: Respiratory Syncytial Virus infects a majority of children before the age of two.
- SARS: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome is a coronavirus-caused respiratory disease responsible for an outbreak in 2002-2003.
- Cytokine Storm: A sudden increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines that causes a severe immune reaction.
- Fibrosis: Pathological wound healing that leads to the formation of scar tissue.
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David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Aldo de Vos | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich
Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar
Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Sigal, M. (2021) What is causing the ‘long-hauler’ phenomenon after COVID-19? Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine. 88 (5): 273-288. Retrieved from: ccjm.org/content/88/5/273
Wu, P., & Hartert, T. V. (2011). Evidence for a causal relationship between respiratory syncytial virus infection and asthma. Expert review of anti-infective therapy, 9(9), 731–745. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1586/eri.11.92
Gao, B., Xiang, X. (2019) Interleukin-22 from bench to bedside: a promising drug for epithelial repair. Cell Mol Immunol 16, 666–667. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1038/s41423-018-0055-6
Haseltine, W. (2022). New Clues To Long Covid: Prolonged Inflammatory Response. Forbes. Retrieved from: forbes.com/sites/williamhaseltine/2022/01/25/new-clues-to-long-covid-prolonged-inflammatory-response/?sh=7902b7d8765c
Marshall, M. (2020). The lasting misery of coronavirus long-haulers. Nature. 585, 339-341. Retrieved from: nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02598-6
Cipolla EM, Huckestein BR, Alcorn JF. (2020) Influenza sequelae: from immune modulation to persistent alveolitis. Clin Sci (Lond). 2020 Jul 17;134(13):1697-1714. Retrieved from: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32648583
Alcorn, John. (2022) Personal Communication. University of Pittsburgh, Department of Immunology. https://www.immunology.pitt.edu/person/john-f-alcorn-phd
Because females often outlive males, behavior is often blamed - but there is a decent chance our sex chromosomes might be to blame instead.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Chromosome: a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.
- Gene: the basic unit of heredity passed from parent to child.
- Mutation: the changing of the structure of a gene, resulting in a variant form that may be transmitted to subsequent generations, caused by the alteration of single base units in DNA, or the deletion, insertion, or rearrangement of larger sections of genes or chromosomes.
- Recessive allele: a type of allele which will not be manifested in an individual unless both of the individual's copies of that gene have that particular genotype.
- Transposon: a chromosomal segment that can undergo transposition, especially a segment of bacterial DNA that can be translocated as a whole between chromosomal, phage, and plasmid DNA in the absence of a complementary sequence in the host DNA.
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Kate Yoshida | Narrator and Director
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
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Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Austad, Steven N., and Kathleen E. Fischer. “Sex Differences in Lifespan.” Cell Metabolism, vol. 23, no. 6, June 2016, pp. 1022–1033, 10.1016/j.cmet.2016.05.019.
Bronikowski, Anne M., et al. “Sex‐Specific Aging in Animals: Perspective and Future Directions.” Aging Cell, vol. 21, no. 2, 23 Jan. 2022, 10.1111/acel.13542.
Nguyen, Alison H., and Doris Bachtrog. “Toxic Y Chromosome: Increased Repeat Expression and Age-Associated Heterochromatin Loss in Male Drosophila with a Young Y Chromosome.” PLOS Genetics, vol. 17, no. 4, 22 Apr. 2021, p. e1009438, 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009438.
Peona, Valentina, et al. “The Avian W Chromosome Is a Refugium for Endogenous Retroviruses with Likely Effects on Female-Biased Mutational Load and Genetic Incompatibilities.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol. 376, no. 1833, 26 July 2021, p. 20200186, 10.1098/rstb.2020.0186.
Sultanova, Zahida, et al. “Genetic Sex Determination and Sex-Specific Lifespan in Tetrapods – Evidence of a Toxic Y Effect.” BioRxiv, 9 Mar. 2020, www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.03.09.983700v1.full, doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.09.983700.
Sultanova, Zahida, et al. “The “Unguarded-X” and the Genetic Architecture of Lifespan: Inbreeding Results in a Potentially Maladaptive Sex-Specific Reduction of Female Lifespan In Drosophila Melanogaster.” Evolution, vol. 72, no. 3, 2 Feb. 2018, pp. 540–552, 10.1111/evo.13426.
Sultanova, Zahida. (2022). Personal communication.
Xirocostas, Zoe A., et al. “The Sex with the Reduced Sex Chromosome Dies Earlier: A Comparison across the Tree of Life.” Biology Letters, vol. 16, no. 3, Mar. 2020, p. 20190867, 10.1098/rsbl.2019.0867.
Xirocostas, Zoe A. (2022). Personal communication.
Most of Earth’s land is currently in the northern hemisphere because we happen to exist in a time where uneven heating in the mantle has pushed many continental plates northward.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Continental drift: An early theory of land movement that posited that the continents floated on the ocean bed.
- Tetrahedral hypothesis: An early theory that attempted to explain the arrangement of Earth’s continents and oceans based on the geometry of a tetrahedron.
- Plate tectonics: The generally accepted theory that the Earth’s surface is made up of a series of tectonic plates that slowly move around on top of the mantle.
- Pangea: The most recent supercontinent to form on Earth, during the late Paleozoic era.
- Great Rift Valley: A series of contiguous geographic trenches between two tectonic plates where humans first evolved.
- Aurica: A potential future supercontinent predicted to form in about 200 million years.
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CREDITS
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David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Lizah van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Aldo de Vos | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich
Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar
Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
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Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Yoshida, M., Hamano, Y. (2015). Pangea breakup and northward drift of the Indian subcontinent reproduced by a numerical model of mantle convection. Scientific Reports 5, 8407. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1038/srep08407
Morton, M.C. (2017). When and how did plate tectonics begin on Earth? Earth Magazine. Retrieved from: earthmagazine.org/article/when-and-how-did-plate-tectonics-begin-earth
Fisher, R. (2022). How the next supercontinent will form. BBC Future. Retrieved from: bbc.com/future/article/20220401-how-the-next-supercontinent-will-form
Maslin, M. (2013). How Climate Change and Plate Tectonics Shaped Human Evolution. Retrieved from: scientificamerican.com/article/how-climate-change-and-plate-tectonics-shaped-human-evolution
Green, W.L. (1875). Vestiges of the Molten Globe. Retrieved from: archive.org/details/vestigesmolteng00greegoog
RESOURCES
**************
RAND resources:
Truth Decay Is a Threat to Democracy. Here’s What You Can Do to Help Stop It | rand.org/blog/2022/03/truth-decay-is-a-threat-to-democracy-heres-what-you.html
RAND's Analysis of News in the Digital Age: Three Takeaways | rand.org/blog/2019/05/rands-analysis-of-news-in-the-digital-age-three-takeaways.html
Why Can’t We Agree on the Facts? | rand.org/research/projects/truth-decay/why-cant-we-agree-on-the-facts.html
What Americans Think of the News—and What That Means for Democracy | rand.org/blog/articles/2020/04/what-americans-think-of-the-news--and-what-that-means.html
Facts Versus Opinions | rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RB10059.html
The Drivers of Institutional Trust and Distrust | rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA112-7.html
Other Resources:
This Video Will Make You Angry by CGP Grey | youtube.com/watch?v=rE3j_RHkqJc
Post-Truth by Veritasium | youtube.com/watch?v=dvk2PQNcg8w
What We're Missing in the Fight Against Misinformation by Dietram Scheufele | youtube.com/watch?v=9Pm37Fksr60
Why every social media site is a dumpster fire by Carlos Maza, Vox | youtube.com/watch?v=wZSRxfHMr5s
Flat Earth "Science" -- Wrong, but not Stupid by Sabine Hossenfelder | youtube.com/watch?v=f8DQSM-b2cc
The Social Dilemma by Netflix | netflix.com/watch/81254224
The Science Behind How We Perceive Truth by Hilary McQuilkin and Meghna Chakrabarti | wbur.org/onpoint/2020/02/25/science-behind-truth
Why Can’t we Agree on Facts? by This Place | youtube.com/watch?v=ZB-Iwuq5VN4
Why do we believe things that aren't true? by Philip Fernbach | youtube.com/watch?v=jobYTQTgeUE
There is No Algorithm for Truth by Tom Scott | The Royal Institution | youtube.com/watch?v=leX541Dr2rU
What to trust in a "post-truth" world by Alex Edmans | youtube.com/watch?v=rpJx5VLQMxk
Social Media Manipulation Playlist by SmarterEveryDay | youtube.com/playlist?list=PLjHf9jaFs8XVAQpJLdNNyA8tzhXzhpZHu
The Illusion of Understanding by Phil Fernbach | youtube.com/watch?v=2SlbsnaSNNM
I accept scientific consensus — and you prob should too by Adam Ragusea | youtube.com/watch?v=gpdsbpCZVZw
Who's Afraid of the Experts? by PhilosophyTube ft. Adam Conover | youtube.com/watch?v=LRNkDZy30xU
I'm a Journalist Who Hates The News by Johnny Harris | youtube.com/watch?v=BkUH2tP8PYw
Somebody once told me.... by vlogbrothers | youtube.com/watch?v=f3pIEKE1Jqk
Respectability by Robert Miles | youtube.com/watch?v=nNB9svNBGHM
Factfulness by Hans Rosling | smile.amazon.com/Factfulness-Reasons-World-Things-Better/dp/1250107814
Amusing ourselves to death by Neil Postman | amazon.com/Amusing-Ourselves-Death-Discourse-Business/dp/014303653X/ref=sr_1_1?dchild=1&keywords=amusing+ourselves+to+death&qid=1594074228&sr=8-1
The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion by Jonathan Haidt | amazon.com/Righteous-Mind-Divided-Politics-Religion/dp/0307455777
You Are Not So Smart (Why You Have Too Many Friends on Facebook, Why Your Memory Is Mostly Fiction, an d 46 Other Ways You're Deluding Yourself) by David McRaney | smile.amazon.com/You-Are-Not-So-Smart/dp/1592407366
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Jasper Palfree | Script Writer, Narrator
Ever Salazar | Director
Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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Music from filmmusic.io
"Bossa Antigua" by Kevin MacLeod (incompetech.com)
License: Filmmusic.io Standard License (incompetech.filmmusic.io/standard-license
OUR STAFF
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Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich
Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar
Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Youtube | youtube.com/MinuteEarth
TikTok | tiktok.com/@minuteearth
Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
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Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
In 2020, many cities started monitoring wastewater for viruses, and there are a lot of non-virus reasons to keep doing it.
LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Microbiome - the microorganisms in a particular environment (including the body or a part of the body).
- Wastewater - water that has been used in the home, in a business, or as part of an industrial process.
- Viral shedding - releasing a virus into the environment through sneezing, coughing, or feces.
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CREDITS
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Cameron Duke | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Aldo de Vos | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich
Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar
Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
************
Youtube | youtube.com/MinuteEarth
TikTok | tiktok.com/@minuteearth
Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
Instagram | instagram.com/minute_earth
Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Anis, E., et al. “Insidious Reintroduction of Wild Poliovirus into Israel, 2013.” Euro Surveillance: Bulletin Europeen Sur Les Maladies Transmissibles = European Communicable Disease Bulletin, vol. 18, no. 38, 19 Sept. 2013, p. 20586, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24084337, 10.2807/1560-7917.es2013.18.38.20586.
CDC. “National Wastewater Surveillance System.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 21 July 2021, www.cdc.gov/healthywater/surveillance/wastewater-surveillance/wastewater-surveillance.html.
Graber, Cynthia. “Why an MIT Robot Is Collecting Poop from Our Sewers - the Boston Globe.” BostonGlobe.com, www.bostonglobe.com/magazine/2017/01/19/why-mit-has-robot-collecting-samples-sewer/g1EhuRPbVR2VtwwJuo2DTN/story.html.
Hellmér, Maria, et al. “Detection of Pathogenic Viruses in Sewage Provided Early Warnings of Hepatitis a Virus and Norovirus Outbreaks.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 80, no. 21, 1 Nov. 2014, pp. 6771–6781, aem.asm.org/content/80/21/6771.short, 10.1128/AEM.01981-14.
Hovi, T., et al. “Poliovirus Surveillance by Examining Sewage Specimens. Quantitative Recovery of Virus after Introduction into Sewerage at Remote Upstream Location.” Epidemiology & Infection, vol. 127, no. 1, 1 Aug. 2001, pp. 101–106, www.cambridge.org/core/journals/epidemiology-and-infection/article/poliovirus-surveillance-by-examining-sewage-specimens-quantitative-recovery-of-virus-after-introduction-into-sewerage-at-remote-upstream-location/EB531F077E4C87FD7284B143352EEEAD, 10.1017/S0950268801005787. Accessed 5 May 2022.
Julian, Tim. (2022). Personal communication. Group Leader of Pathogens and Human Health, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology. https://www.eawag.ch/en/aboutus/portrait/organisation/staff/profile/tim-julian/show/
Metcalf, T. G., et al. “Environmental Virology: From Detection of Virus in Sewage and Water by Isolation to Identification by Molecular Biology--a Trip of over 50 Years.” Annual Review of Microbiology, vol. 49, 1995, pp. 461–487, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8561468, 10.1146/annurev.mi.49.100195.002333.
Raphael, Therese. “Where Will We Find the next Covid Outbreak? Check the Sewers.” Bloomberg.com, 8 Jan. 2022, www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2022-01-08/covid-omicron-sewers-are-our-early-warning-system-for-future-virus-outbreaks.
Wells, Chad R., et al. “Prosocial Polio Vaccination in Israel.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 117, no. 23, 26 May 2020, pp. 13138–13144, 10.1073/pnas.1922746117.
Who needs redundancy? Well, everyone, it turns out.
LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Ecological redundancy (also: functional redundancy or functional equivalence): the ecological phenomena that multiple species representing a variety of taxonomic groups can share similar roles in ecosystem functionality
- Legume: a plant in the Fabaceae family
- Nitrogen fixation: the chemical process by which atmospheric nitrogen is assimilated into organic compounds
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If you like what we do, you can help us!:
- Become our patron: patreon.com/MinuteEarth
- Share this video with your friends and family
- Leave us a comment (we read them!)
CREDITS
*********
Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Lizah van der Aart | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Aldo de Vos | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich
Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar
Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
************
Youtube | youtube.com/MinuteEarth
TikTok | tiktok.com/@minuteearth
Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
Instagram | instagram.com/minute_earth
Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Cardinale BJ, et al. (2011). The functional role of producer diversity in ecosystems. Am. J. Bot., 98 (2011), pp. 572-592. bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3732/ajb.1000364
Clarke DM & Hollister I. (2010) Introduction to Redundancy. Safety and Reliability 30:4, 4-15. tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09617353.2010.11690919
Huda AN, Salmah MRC, Hassan AA, Hamdan A, Razak MNA. 2015. Pollination services of mango flower pollinators. Journal of Insect Science 15: 113. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4672212
Naeem, S. (1998) Species Redundancy and Ecosystem Reliability. Conservation Biology, 12, 39-45. conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.96379.x
Paine, RT (1966). Food web complexity and species diversity. American Naturalist 100: 65– 75. jstor.org/stable/2459379
The most likely cause of the next pandemic will be the “spillover” of a disease from one of a select group of animals with particular immune system traits and interactions with humans.
LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Zoonosis: A disease that can be transmitted to humans by animals
- Hyper reservoirs: Animals that naturally are home to multiple infectious agents.
- Spillover: Transmission of a zoonosis from an animal reservoir to a human.
- Life history strategy: An evolutionary strategy that involves tradeoffs among growth, survival, and reproduction.
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CREDITS
*********
David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Alexander Vidal | Illustration
Sarah Berman | Video Editing and Animation
Aldo de Vos | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich
Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar
Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Youtube | youtube.com/MinuteEarth
TikTok | tiktok.com/@minuteearth
Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
Instagram | instagram.com/minute_earth
Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Keesing, F., and Ostefld, R. (2021). Impacts of biodiversity and biodiversity loss on zoonotic diseases. PNAS, 118 (17) e2023540118. Retrieved from: pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.2023540118
Han, B., Schmidt, J.P., Bowden, S., and Drake, J. (2015). Rodent reservoirs of future zoonotic diseases. PNAS, 112 (22) 7039-7044. Retrieved from: pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1501598112
Balderrama-Gutierrez G, Milovic A, Cook VJ, Islam MN, Zhang Y, Kiaris H, Belisle JT, Mortazavi A, Barbour AG. (2021). An Infection-Tolerant Mammalian Reservoir for Several Zoonotic Agents Broadly Counters the Inflammatory Effects of Endotoxin. mBio.;12(2):e00588-21. Retrieved from: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33849979
Olival, K., Hosseini, P., Zambrana-Torrelio, C. et al. (2017). Host and viral traits predict zoonotic spillover from mammals. Nature 546, 646–650. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1038/nature22975
Martin, L. B., 2nd, Weil, Z. M., & Nelson, R. J. (2007). Immune defense and reproductive pace of life in Peromyscus mice. Ecology, 88(10), 2516–2528. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1890/07-0060.1
Johnson Christine K., Hitchens Peta L., Pandit Pranav S., Rushmore Julie, Evans Tierra Smiley, Young Cristin C. W. and Doyle Megan M. (2020). Global shifts in mammalian population trends reveal key predictors of virus spillover risk. Proc. R. Soc. B .2872019273620192736. Retrieved from: royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.2736
Allen, T., Murray, K.A., Zambrana-Torrelio, C. et al. (2017). Global hotspots and correlates of emerging zoonotic diseases. Nat Commun 8, 1124. Retrieved from: nature.com/articles/s41467-017-00923-8
Han, Barbara. (2022). Personal communication. Disease Ecologist, Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies. http://www.hanlab.science/
MinuteFood | youtube.com/minutefood?sub_confirmation=1
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#shorts #elections
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Water can dissolve more substances than anything else on earth...so why doesn't it dissolve everything away?
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
solvent: a substance that dissolves a solute
solubility: the relative ability of a solute to dissolve into a solvent
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REFERENCES
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Govorov, A. (1.28.2022), personal communication
USGS (2018). Water, the Universal Solvent. usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/water-universal-solvent
One of Earth's biggest cells is one you're probably really familiar with.
See what we're cooking up over at our BRAND-NEW channel, MinuteFood: youtube.com/user/minutefood
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Cell: the smallest unit that can execute all the activities required for life
- Egg: the organic vessel containing the zygote in which an embryo develops until it can survive on its own
- Fertilization: the union of male and female gametes during sexual reproduction to form a zygote
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REFERENCES
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Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. (2002). Eggs. Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th edition). New York: Garland Science. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26842
Gilbert S. (2013). ""Early Development in Birds"". Developmental Biology (10th ed.). Sunderland: Sinauer Associates. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10070
Marshall WF, Young KD, Swaffer M, Wood E. (2012) What determines cell size? BMC Biololgy 10: 101. bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1741-7007-10-101
Starck J (2020) Morphology of the avian yolk sac, Journal of Morphology 282:7, (959-972). onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jmor.21262
Way more kids have fuzzy vision these days because we spend less time in outdoor light, which makes our eyeballs longer.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Lens: A transparent biconvex structure in the eye that can change its shape to change the focal distance.
- Retina: A layer at the back of the eyeball containing cells that are sensitive to light.
- Fovea: A small depression in the retina where visual acuity is highest.
- Myopia: A common vision condition in which distant objects are blurry.
- Hyperopia: A vision condition in which nearer objects are blurry.
- Emmetropization: The process by which the eye grows in order to maximize visual acuity.
- Dopamine: A neurotransmitter in the retina that tells the eyeball to stop growing once it has gotten to the ideal length.
- Near Work Hypothesis: The theory that the modern myopia epidemic was a result of humans spending more time looking at nearby objects.
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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
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REFERENCES
**************
Zhou, X., Pardue, M. T., Iuvone, P. M., & Qu, J. (2017). Dopamine signaling and myopia development: What are the key challenges. Progress in retinal and eye research, 61, 60–71. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1016/j.preteyeres.2017.06.003
Morgan, I. G., Rose, K. A., Ellwein, L. B., & Refractive Error Study in Children Survey Group (2010). Is emmetropia the natural endpoint for human refractive development? An analysis of population-based data from the refractive error study in children (RESC). Acta ophthalmologica, 88(8), 877–884. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-3768.2009.01800.x
Dolgan, E. (2015). The Myopia Boom. Nature. 519: 276-278. Retrieved from: nature.com/news/polopoly_fs/1.17120!/menu/main/topColumns/topLeftColumn/pdf/519276a.pdf
Carr BJ, Stell WK. The Science Behind Myopia. (2017) In: Kolb H, Fernandez E, Nelson R, editors. Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System [Internet]. Salt Lake City (UT): University of Utah Health Sciences Center; 1995-. Retrieved from: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470669
Brody, J. (2021). Why Nearsightedness is on the Rise in Children. New York Times. Retrieved from: nytimes.com/2021/05/03/well/live/nearsightedness-myopia-children.html
Klaver CCW, Polling JR, Enthoven CA. (2021) 2020 as the Year of Quarantine Myopia. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2021;139(3):300–301. Retrieved from: doi:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2020.6231
Even though less than 1% of Earth's water is freshwater, it's the home for 50% of fish species. This is the Freshwater Paradox.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Speciation: The formation of new and distinct species.
- Sympatric speciation: The evolution of new species from ancestral species while both continue to inhabit the same geographic region.
- Allopatric speciation: Speciation that occurs when a population becomes separated by a geographic barrier.
- Adaptive radiation: The diversification of a group of organisms into forms filling different ecological niches.
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neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
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David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich
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REFERENCES
**************
Thank you to Dr. Elizabeth Miller for lending their time and expertise to this video.
Betancur‐R, Ricardo, Guillermo Ortí, and Robert Alexander Pyron. "Fossil‐based comparative analyses reveal ancient marine ancestry erased by extinction in ray‐finned fishes." Ecology Letters 18.5 (2015): 441-450. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25808114
Bowen, Brian W., et al. "The origins of tropical marine biodiversity." Trends in ecology & evolution 28.6 (2013): 359-366. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23453048
Burress, E. D., et al. "Phylogenomics of pike cichlids (Cichlidae: Crenicichla): the rapid ecological speciation of an incipient species flock." Journal of evolutionary biology 31.1 (2018): 14-30. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29044782
Carrete Vega, Greta, and John J. Wiens. "Why are there so few fish in the sea?." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279.1737 (2012): 2323-2329. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22319126
Dawson, Michael N. "Species richness, habitable volume, and species densities in freshwater, the sea, and on land." Frontiers of Biogeography 4.3 (2012). escholarship.org/content/qt30m4r519/qt30m4r519.pdf
Deutsch, Curtis, Justin L. Penn, and Brad Seibel. "Metabolic trait diversity shapes marine biogeography." Nature 585.7826 (2020): 557-562. nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2721-y
Elmer, Kathryn R., and Axel Meyer. "Sympatric speciation without borders?." (2010): 1991-1993. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20550632
Hendry, Andrew P. "Ecological speciation! Or the lack thereof?." Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 66.8 (2009): 1383-1398. cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/F09-074
McCune, A. R., and N. R. Lovejoy. 1998. The relative rate of sympatric and allopatric speciation in fishes. Pp. 172–185 in D. J. Howard and S. H. Berlocher, eds. Endless forms: species and speciation. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, NY. google.com/books/edition/Endless_Forms/pLzY1-wyOKwC
McDermott, Amy. "Inner Workings: Reeling in answers to the “freshwater fish paradox”." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118.36 (2021). pnas.org/content/118/36/e2113780118
McGee, Matthew D., et al. "The ecological and genomic basis of explosive adaptive radiation." Nature 586.7827 (2020): 75-79. nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2652-7
Miller, Elizabeth Christina. "Comparing diversification rates in lakes, rivers, and the sea." Evolution 75.8 (2021): 2055-2073. onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/evo.14295
Seehausen, Ole, and Catherine E. Wagner. "Speciation in freshwater fishes." Annual review of ecology, evolution, and systematics 45 (2014): 621-651. https://www.aqua.iee.unibe.ch/e60779/e60786/e257814/e250417/e255662/pane255677/e277703/files277744/WagnerSeehausen2014_AREES_Speciationinfreshwaterfishes_eng.pdf
Seehausen, Ole. "Process and pattern in cichlid radiations–inferences for understanding unusually high rates of evolutionary diversification." New Phytologist 207.2 (2015): 304-312. nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.13450
In an effort to protect us from getting killed by something we’ve ingested, our brain’s vomit control center processes a lot of information from several different places … and sometimes is a little overly cautious.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Emesis: The act of vomiting
- Vomiting: The oral eviction of gastrointestinal contents due to contractions in the gut and stomach.
- Nausea: A diffuse sensation of uneasiness and discomfort often felt as the need to vomit.
- Vomiting Center: An area in the brain’s medulla oblongata that initiates and controls emesis.
- Chemoreceptor Trigger Zone: An area in the area postrema of the medulla oblongata that is sensitive to certain toxic chemicals in the blood.
- Nucleus Tractus Solitarius: A region in the medulla oblongata that receives input from the cardiovascular, respiratory and GI systems.
- Vagus Nerve: A cranial nerve that regulates internal organ functions, including vomiting.
- Vestibular System: A Sensory system that provides our brain with information about motion, head position, and spatial positioning for balance.
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neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
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David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich
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Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Singh P, Yoon SS, Kuo B. Nausea: a review of pathophysiology and therapeutics. Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 2016;9(1):98-112. Retrieved from: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4699282
Hasler, W. (2013). Pathology of emesis: its autonomic basis. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Vol. 117 (3rd series) Autonomic Nervous System. Retrieved from: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24095137
Zhong W, Shahbaz O, Teskey G, Beever A, Kachour N, Venketaraman V, Darmani NA. Mechanisms of Nausea and Vomiting: Current Knowledge and Recent Advances in Intracellular Emetic Signaling Systems. Int J Mol Sci. 2021 May 28;22(11):5797. Retrieved from: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34071460
Kowalski A, Rapps N, Enck P. Functional cortical imaging of nausea and vomiting: a possible approach. Auton Neurosci. 2006 Oct 30;129(1-2):28-35. Retrieved from: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16945593
Hornby, PJ. Central neurocircuitry associated with emesis. Am J Med. 2001 Dec 3;111 Suppl 8A:106S-112S. Retrieved from: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11749934
Kuo, Braden. (2022). Personal Communication. Director of the Center for Neurointestinal Health at Mass General. massgeneral.org/doctors/17189/brad-kuo.
Soil doesn't seem like it's "alive", yet it functions like a living thing in lots of key ways.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Soil health: the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living system, within ecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, promote the quality of air and water environments, and maintain plant, animal, and human health
Living system: an open self-organizing life form that interacts with its environment
Ecosystem services: varied benefits to humans provided by the natural environment and from healthy ecosystems
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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
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Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
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Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Harshberger, JW. (1911) The Soil, A Living Thing. Reprinted from Science, N.S. vol. 33 No. 854. 469.1 science.org/doi/10.1126/science.33.854.741
Minami K. (2021) “Soil is a living substance”. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 67: 26-30. tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00380768.2020.1827939
Rattal Lal, personal communication (11/19/21)
Asmeret Berhe, personal communication (12/2/21)
Bitcoin and other blockchain technologies, like NFTs, work a lot like reindeer mating.
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**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Bitcoin: a digital currency known as a cryptocurrency, which uses a proof-of-work consensus to validate transactions and create new units of Bitcoin.
- Proof-of-work: a decentralized consensus mechanism that requires members of a network to expend effort solving an arbitrary mathematical puzzle to prevent malicious activity
- Blockchain: a record of transactions made in Bitcoin or another cryptocurrency maintained across several linked computers, which can also be used in non-cryptocurrency applications
- Mining: the process of validating transactions and creating new Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies
- Sexual selection: a form of natural selection driven by competition between members of a species of one sex for access to mating partners of another sex that favors certain characteristics
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Julián Gustavo Gómez (@TheJulianGomez) | Script Writer and Narrator
Ever Salazar | Director
Aldo de Vos | Illustration, Video Editing, Animation, and Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
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Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez
Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
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Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Antonopoulos, Andreas M. "Mastering bitcoin." (2019)
Brennan, P. “Sexual Selection.” (2010) Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):79 nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/sexual-selection-13255240
Cambridge Bitcoin Electricity Consumption Index (CBECI), University of Cambridge, ccaf.io/cbeci/index.
de Vries, Alex. “Bitcoin Energy Consumption Index.” Digiconomist, 6 Nov. 2021, digiconomist.net/bitcoin-energy-consumption.
Goss, Richard J. Deer antlers: regeneration, function and evolution. Academic Press, 2012.
Panko, Ben. “Go Big or Go Generic: How Sexual Selection Is like Advertising.” Smithsonian Magazine, Smithsonian Institution, 6 Dec. 2016, smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/either-go-big-or-go-generic-how-sexual-selection-advertising-180961311/.
The most cost-effective way to save a human life right now is to help give Vitamin A drops to certain groups of people, thanks to the health effects of the drops and the ease of their distribution.
LEARN MORE
**************
To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
- Vitamin A: A group of nutrients called retinoids used in several different processes in the human body.
- Malaria: A serious disease carried by parasites in a certain type of mosquito that feeds on humans.
- Value of Life: The economic value used to quantify the benefit of avoiding a fatality
- Upstream interventions: Approaches to healthcare that address root causes rather than symptoms.
- Night Blindness: An early symptom of Vitamin A deficiency in which the eye is unable to process low levels of light.
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CREDITS
*********
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Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Aldo de Vos | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez
Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
Instagram | instagram.com/minute_earth
Facebook | facebook.com/Minuteearth
Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Linus Pauling Institute. Vitamin A. Micronutrient Information Center. Oregon State University. Retrieved from: https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/vitamins/vitamin-A#introduction
Imdad, A, Mayo‐Wilson, E, Herzer, K, and Bhutta, ZA (2017). Vitamin A supplementation for preventing morbidity and mortality in children from six months to five years of age. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Vol 3. Retrieved from: cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008524.pub3/full
GiveWell. Vitamin A Supplementation. Retrieved from: givewell.org/international/technical/programs/vitamin-A
GiveWell. 2020 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis. Retrieved from: docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/16XOOB1oWse1ICbF0OVXUYtwWwpvG3mxAAQ6LYAAndQU/edit#gid=1377543212
Anna J. MacMonegle, James Nonnemaker, Jennifer C. Duke, Matthew C. Farrelly, Xiaoquan Zhao, Janine C. Delahanty, Alexandria A. Smith, Pamela Rao, Jane A. Allen (2018). Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of The Real Cost Campaign's Effect on Smoking Prevention. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Vol 55:3 (319-325). Retrieved from: ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(18)31877-4/fulltext
Our World in Data. Causes of Death. Retrieved from: ourworldindata.org/causes-of-death#cause-by-cause
A broken bone might seem worse than a sprain, but you'll get over it much more quickly.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Aqueous humour: The clear fluid filling the space in the front of the eyeball between the lens and the cornea.
Bone remodeling: The continuous process of synthesis and destruction that gives bone its mature structure and maintains normal calcium levels in the body.
Ligament: A short band of tough, flexible fibrous connective tissue which connects two bones or cartilages or holds together a joint.
Sprain: A stretching or tearing of ligaments.
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Cameron Duke (@dukeofcam) | Script Writer
Kate Yoshida | Script Editor, Narrator and Director
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Aldo de Vos, Know Art | Music
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REFERENCES
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Landzhov, B. (2015). The Epiligament-The Main Donor of Cells and Vessels during Healing Of the Collateral Ligaments of the Knee. Anatomy & Physiology, s4. doi.org/10.4172/2161-0940.s4-006
Leong, N. L., Kator, J. L., Clemens, T. L., James, A., Enamoto‐Iwamoto, M., & Jiang, J. (2019). Tendon and Ligament Healing and Current Approaches to Tendon and Ligament Regeneration. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 38(1), 7–12. doi.org/10.1002/jor.24475
Marsell, R., & Einhorn, T. A. (2011). The biology of fracture healing. Injury, 42(6), 551–555. doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2011.03.031
Martini, F., Nath, J. L., & Bartholomew, E. F. (2018). Fundamentals of anatomy & physiology (11th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.
Smith, P., & Bollier, M. (2014). Anterior Cruciate Ligament and Medial Collateral Ligament Injuries. Journal of Knee Surgery, 27(05), 359–368. doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1381961
Extreme weather sometimes happens in very specific areas thanks to extreme surface temperature differences.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Evapotranspiration: the return of water to the atmosphere from the ground surface.
Troposphere: The lowest region of the Earth’s atmosphere, extending usually to around 10 km above the Earth’s surface.
Tropopause: The top-most boundary of the troposphere.
Low Pressure System: An area of relatively low pressure that draws air into it, causing converging winds.
Micro-climate: The climate of a very small or restricted area.
Heat Island: An urban area that has higher average temperatures than its surrounding due to the heat absorption of materials like concrete and asphalt.
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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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Articles from Denver Post, Denverite, BBC, itv News,The Independent, Weather Channel, NBC 10 Philadelphia, WFMZ 69, WQAD 8 abc, KSDK 5
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REFERENCES
**************
MIT Concrete Sustainability Hub. Topic Summary: Mitigating Climate Change with Reflective Pavements. (2021). Retrieved from: https://cshub.mit.edu/sites/default/files/images/Albedo%201113_0.pdf
Randel W. J., Jensen E. J., (2013) Physical processes in the tropical tropopause layer and their roles in a changing climate. Nature Geoscience Vol 6, pp 169. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1733
Kurn, D M, Bretz, S E, Huang, B, and Akbari, H. (1994) "The potential for reducing urban air temperatures and energy consumption through vegetative cooling." United States OSTI, Retrieved from: osti.gov/biblio/10180633-potential-reducing-urban-air-temperatures-energy-consumption-through-vegetative-cooling
Lejeune, Q., Davin, E.L., Gudmundsson, L. et al. (2018) Historical deforestation locally increased the intensity of hot days in northern mid-latitudes. Nature Clim Change 8, 386–390. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0131-z
Ma J., Chadwick R., Seo K. H., Dong C., Huang G., Foltz G. R., Jiang J. H. (2018) Responses of the Tropical Atmospheric Circulation to Climate Change and Connection to the Hydrological Cycle. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Vol. 46:549–580. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-082517010102
Terzi, L. (2021). Personal communication. Belgian Nuclear Research Center.
Our oceans don’t technically contain salt, but the ions salt is made of play a critical role in planet-wide processes that make the Earth habitable.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Salt: chemical compounds made of positively- and negatively-charged particles called “ions” like sodium and chloride
Convection current: the movement of fluid, like water, due to a difference in temperature and/or density
Hydrothermal vent: a fissure on the seafloor that takes in dense ocean water and discharges water heated by volcanic activity below the seafloor.
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REFERENCES
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Duxbury, A. C. (n.d.). Seawater. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 3, 2021, from britannica.com/science/seawater.
Earley, Joseph E. "Why there is no salt in the sea." Foundations of Chemistry 7.1 (2005): 85-102. link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:FOCH.0000042881.05418.15
Henney, J. E., C. L. Taylor, and C. S. Boon. "Taste and flavor roles of sodium in foods: A unique challenge to reducing sodium intake." Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in The United States; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA (2010). ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK50958
Ouillon, Raphael, et al. "Halite precipitation from double‐diffusive salt fingers in the Dead Sea: Numerical simulations." Water Resources Research 55.5 (2019): 4252-4265. agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2019WR024818
The urushiol molecules in poison ivy have the ability to trigger a harmful immune response in most people because the immune system mistakenly labels them as a threat.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Allergy: A damaging immune response by the body to a substance.
Allergen: The substance that causes the allergic reaction.
Urushiol: The allergen in poison ivy and poison oak.
Allergic Contact Dermatitis: An allergic response caused by contact with a substance that causes rash or lesions at the site of the exposure.
Langerhans Cell: An immune sentinel that lives in the epidermis of the skin but can travel to nearby lymph nodes.
Helper T Cell: A type of white blood cell that activates immune responses in the body.
Thrush: A white skin rash caused by the fungus candida.
Anaphylaxis: A whole body allergic reaction that can include throat swelling.
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REFERENCES
**************
Khaled Marwa, Noah P. Kondamudi (2021) Type IV Hypersensitivity Reaction. StatPearls. Retrieved from: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562228
John Barrat (2014), A Poison Ivy Primer, Smithsonian Retrieved from: https://www.si.edu/stories/poison-ivy-primer
Florian Winau (2021) Personal Communication. Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School.
Tiffany Scharschmidt (2021) Personal Communication. Department of Dermatology, UCSF Medical School.
Yesul Kim, Alexandra Flamm, Mahmoud A. ElSohly, Daniel H. Kaplan, Raymond J. Hage Jr, Curtis P. Hamann, and James G. Marks Jr (2019). Poison Ivy, Oak, and Sumac Dermatitis: What Is Known and What Is New? Dermatitis. 30: 3 (183-190). Retrieved from: journals.lww.com/dermatitis/Abstract/2019/05000/Poison_Ivy,_Oak,_and_Sumac_Dermatitis__What_Is.2.aspx
The way we experience seasons don't necessarily line up with how they're technically defined - here's why.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Astronomical seasons - seasons that are defined by equinoxes and solstices (not temperature or weather)
Equinox: the time/dates at which the sun crosses the celestial equator, when day and night are of approximately equal length
Solstice: the time/dates at which the sun reaches its maximum or minimum declination, marked by the longest and shortest days
Seasonal lag: the phenomenon by which the hottest/coldest days of the year are delayed until after the days with the most/least sunlight
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REFERENCES
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ABC News: “Spring, summer, autumn and winter — why do we have seasons?” https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2017-09-01/seasons-and-their-changes-explained/8858776
Coastal Interpretive Center: “Equinoxes, Solstices, and Why We Have Seasons” interpretivecenter.org/equinoxes-solstices-and-why-we-have-seasons
KNPR Krulwich Wonders: “Not All Seasons Are Created Equal” npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5335287
National Weather Service: “The Seasons, the Equinox, and the Solstices” weather.gov/cle/Seasons
The competitive exclusion principle predicts that there would just be a few species of plankton, but instead there are thousands.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Competitive Exclusion Principle: The idea that two similar species cannot inhabit the same ecological niche.
Phytoplankton: Microscopic flora that drift with the ocean currents.
Lotka-Volterra Competitive Equations: A simple model of the population dynamics of species competing for the same resources.
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REFERENCES
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Scheffer, M., Rinaldi, S., Huisman, J. et al. (2003) Why plankton communities have no equilibrium: solutions to the paradox. Hydrobiologia 491, 9–18. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1023/A:1024404804748
Nicholas R. Record, Andrew J. Pershing, Frédéric Maps (2014) The paradox of the “paradox of the plankton”, ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 71, Issue 2,Pages 236–240. Retrieved from: doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fst049
Harden, Garrett. (1960). The Competitive Exclusion Principle. Science. 131. 3409 (1292-1297). Retrieved from: https://www.esf.edu/efb/schulz/seminars/hardin.pdf
Shovonlal Roy, J. Chattopadhyay, (2007) Towards a resolution of ‘the paradox of the plankton’: A brief overview of the proposed mechanisms. Ecological Complexity, Volume 4, Issues 1–2 (26-33). Retrieved from: sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1476945X07000165
Susan Harrison, Howard Cornell and Kara A. Moore (2010) Spatial niches and coexistence: testing theory with tarweeds. Ecology, Vol. 91, No. 7 pp. 2141-2150 Retrieved from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25680467
A technology to ignore birds on radar ended up being useful to study and conserve them.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Radar aeroecology - the use of radar to study airborne life, like birds, bats, and bugs
Radar ornithology - the use of radar to study birds, especially bird migration
Dual-polarization radar - radar that transmits and receives waves in both a horizontal and vertical orientation, giving a better idea of a target’s size, shape, and variety.
Doppler effect - a change in a wave’s frequency in relation to whatever is observing it, such as a radar, but also your ears (it’s the reason a sound like an ambulance siren changes as it gets closer or further away from you).
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Julián Gustavo Gómez (@TheJulianGomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
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Aldo de Vos, Know Art | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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Radar footage by National Weather Service, BirdCast, and Alex Bencke
Swallows footage by Ted Cheskey, Nature Canada
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REFERENCES
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Bauer, Silke, et al. "The grand challenges of migration ecology that radar aeroecology can help answer." Ecography 42.5 (2019): 861-875. onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ecog.04083
Dokter, Adriaan M., et al. "Bird migration flight altitudes studied by a network of operational weather radars." Journal of the Royal Society Interface 8.54 (2011): 30-43. royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2010.0116
Duda, Jeff. "How to use and interpret Doppler weather radar." Retrieved July 18 (2009): 2014. https://meteor.geol.iastate.edu/~jdduda/portfolio/How%20to%20read%20and%20interpret%20weather%20radar.pdf
Fox, Anthony D., and Patrick DL Beasley. "David Lack and the birth of radar ornithology." Archives of natural history 37.2 (2010): 325-332. euppublishing.com/doi/10.3366/anh.2010.0013
Gauthreaux Jr, Sidney A., and Carroll G. Belser. "Radar ornithology and biological conservation." The Auk 120.2 (2003): 266-277. jstor.org/stable/4090179
Hüppop, Ommo, et al. "Perspectives and challenges for the use of radar in biological conservation." Ecography 42.5 (2019): 912-930. onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ecog.04063
Lack, David, and G. C. Varley. "Detection of birds by radar." Nature 156.3963 (1945): 446-446. nature.com/articles/156446a0
Marshall, S., & Toma, A. (2012, May 23). The close calls: How false alarms triggered fears of Nuclear War. Council for a Livable World. Retrieved November 2, 2021, from livableworld.org/the-close-calls-how-false-alarms-triggered-fears-of-nuclear-war/.
Schuur, T., et al. "Observations and classification of echoes with the polarimetric WSR-88D radar." Report of the National Severe Storms Laboratory, Norman, OK 73069 (2003): 46. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.540.9868&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Stepanian, Phillip M., et al. "Dual‐polarization radar products for biological applications." Ecosphere 7.11 (2016): e01539. esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ecs2.1539
Tang, Lin, et al. "A physically based precipitation–nonprecipitation radar echo classifier using polarimetric and environmental data in a real-time national system." Weather and Forecasting 29.5 (2014): 1106-1119. journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/wefo/29/5/waf-d-13-00072_1.xml
Zhang, Pengfei, Shun Liu, and Qin Xu. "Identifying Doppler velocity contamination caused by migrating birds. Part I: Feature extraction and quantification." Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 22.8 (2005): 1105-1113. journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/atot/22/8/jtech1757_1.xml
Trying to ripen some fruits on your kitchen counter is totally fruitless - here's why.
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climacteric: a pattern of fruit ripening associated with increased ethylene production and a rise in cellular respiration (meaning that the fruit can ripen off the plant)
nonclimacteric: ripening that is not characterized by a peak of ethylene production or respiration (and must happen on the plant)
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Footage by Kate Yoshida:
- Fruits on counter
- Pineapple cut
- Grocery store fruits
Cherry photo by Khoa Ma
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Orange photo by Adam Nieścioruk
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Pineapple photo by Fernando Andrade
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Apple photo by Adam Thompson
Banana photo by Moritz Kindler
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Mango photo by Unsplash user triplemdesignz
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REFERENCES
**************
Cherian, S., Figueroa, C. R., and Nair, H. (2014). ‘Movers and shakers’ in the regulation of fruit ripening: a cross-dissection of climacteric versus non-climacteric fruit. J. Exp. Bot. 65, 4705–4722. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24994760
Fukano Y. & Tachiki Y. (2021). Evolutionary ecology of climacteric and non-climacteric fruits. Biology Letters 17 (9). royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2021.0352
Leng, P., Yuan, B., & Guo, Y. (2014). The role of abscisic acid in fruit ripening and responses to abiotic stress. J. Exp. Bot. 65, 4577–4588. academic.oup.com/jxb/article/65/16/4577/2877414
Lu, P. T. et al. (2018). Genome encode analyses reveal the basis of convergent evolution of fleshy fruit ripening. Nat. Plants 4, 784–791. nature.com/articles/s41477-018-0249-z
Paul V., Pandey R., & Srivastava G.C. (2012). The fading distinctions between classical patterns of ripening in climacteric and non-climacteric fruit and the ubiquity of ethylene - an overview. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 49:01-21. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23572821
Hyenas communicate via an information-dense physical medium (hyena butter) - and now MinuteEarth does too (book).
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Hyena audio clips by Dr. Kenna Lehmann
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REFERENCES
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Hofer, H., M. L. East, I. Sammang, and & M. Dehnhard. 2001. Analysis of volatile compounds in scent-marks of spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) and their possible function in olfactory communication. Chemical Signals in Vertebrates 9:141–148. Retrieved from: link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4615-0671-3_18
Theis, K.R., Venkataraman, A., Dycus, J. A., Koonter, K.D.S., Schmitt-Matzen, E.N., Wagner. A.P., Holekamp, K.E., & Schmidt, T.M (2013) Symbiotic bacteria appear to mediate hyena social odors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110: 19832–19837. Retrieved from: pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1306477110
Theis, K. R., Schmidt, T. M. & Holekamp, K. E. (2012) Evidence for a bacterial mechanism for group-specific social odors among hyenas. Scientific Reports 2, 615. Retrieved from: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3431069
MinuteEarth (2021). MinuteEarth Explains: How Did Whales Get So Big? & Other Curious Questions about Animals, Nature, Geology and Planet Earth. Retrieved from: https://www.MinuteEarth.com/books
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Julián Gustavo Gómez (@TheJulianGomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Ever Salazar (@eversalazar) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Aldo de Vos, Know Art | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
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David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez
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Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
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The current hurricane category scale doesn’t accurately convey the danger of a storm, because it doesn’t account for a hurricane's most destructive factors.
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Storm surge: a sea level rise caused by strong winds pushing the water and a change in atmospheric pressure of a storm.
Hurricane: a tropical cyclone occurring in the Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale: the current scale used to categorize hurricanes from 1 to 5 based on the hurricane’s maximum sustained wind speed.
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If you like what we do, you can help us!:
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Julián Gustavo Gómez (@TheJulianGomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Arcadi Garcia i Rius (@garirius) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
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Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez
Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
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REFERENCES
**************
Belles, Jonathan. “Surface Pressure a Better Indicator of Hurricane Damage Potential, New Study Says | the Weather Channel - Articles from the Weather Channel | Weather.com.” The Weather Channel, 2020, weather.com/storms/hurricane/news/2020-01-29-hurricane-surface-pressure-damage-potential-wind.
Erdman, Jonathan. “88% of U.S. Deaths from Hurricanes, Tropical Storms Are from Water, Not Wind | the Weather Channel - Articles from the Weather Channel | Weather.com.” The Weather Channel, 2021, weather.com/safety/hurricane/news/hurricanes-tropical-storms-us-deaths-surge-flooding.
Gibbens, Sarah. “Hurricane Categories Don’t Tell the Whole Story.” Environment, National Geographic, 14 Sept. 2021, nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/hurricane-categories-do-not-tell-the-whole-story-see-what-matters.
Klotzbach, Philip J., et al. "Surface pressure a more skillful predictor of normalized hurricane damage than maximum sustained wind." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 101.6 (2020): E830-E846. journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/101/6/bamsD190062.xml
Olson, Richard S. “Add a New Hurricane Category. Cat 6 | Opinion.” Sun-Sentinel.com, South Florida Sun-Sentinel, 3 Dec. 2019, sun-sentinel.com/opinion/commentary/fl-op-com-olson-cat-six-hurricane-category-20191203-4fwaq7hjmbdkli3sg5trmfysku-story.html.
Pilkington, Stephanie F., and Hussam N. Mahmoud. "Using artificial neural networks to forecast economic impact of multi-hazard hurricane-based events." Sustainable and Resilient Infrastructure 1.1-2 (2016): 63-83. tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23789689.2016.1179529
Plumer, Brad. “Hurricane Patricia: Why a Record Storm Did Surprisingly Little Damage.” Vox, Vox, 26 Oct. 2015, vox.com/2015/10/26/9615274/hurricane-patricia-aftermath.
“Storm Surge Overview.” Noaa.gov, 2021, nhc.noaa.gov/surge/.
Lots of global problems seem intractable, but there’s a formula for success that we can follow.
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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:
Ozone layer: A thin layer of ozone concentrated in the Earth’s stratosphere roughly 10 kilometers above that absorbs most of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation before it hits the Earth’s surface.
Ultraviolet radiation: Invisible rays of energy that come from the sun that can be harmful to humans and other lifeforms.
Chlorofluorocarbons: Also known as CFCs, these long man-made molecules used to be widely used refrigerants and solvents before it was discovered that - when exposed to ultraviolet radiation - their chlorine atoms would break off and combine with ozone molecules.
Smallpox: A virus that killed more than half a billion humans before being eradicated in 1980.
Disease Surveillance: A practice by which disease progressions are closely monitored in order to minimize the harm caused by outbreaks.
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SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH
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If you like what we do, you can help us!:
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CREDITS
*********
David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Ever Salazar (@eversalazar) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez
Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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TikTok | tiktok.com/@minuteearth
Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
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Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Ochmann, Sophie, and Max Roser. “Smallpox.” Our World in Data, 2018, ourworldindata.org/smallpox. Data on Smallpox.
Henderson, D A. SMALLPOX - the DEATH of a DISEASE : The inside Story of Eradicating a Worldwide Killer. S.L., Prometheus, 2021, pp. 57–61.
CDC. “History of Smallpox.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 20 Feb. 2021, cdc.gov/smallpox/history/history.html.
Waxman, Olivia B. 2019. “Reagan Administration Officials at First Dismissed the Ozone Hole. Here’s What Changed.” Time. April 9, 2019. time.com/5564651/reagan-ozone-hole
Velders, G. J. M., S. O. Andersen, J. S. Daniel, D. W. Fahey, and M. McFarland. 2007. “The Importance of the Montreal Protocol in Protecting Climate.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (12): 4814–19. doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0610328104.
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. n.d. “Susan Solomon: Pioneering Atmospheric Scientist.” Celebrating200years.noaa.gov. Accessed July 20, 2021. celebrating200years.noaa.gov/historymakers/solomon/welcome.html.
Solomon, Susan. 2019. “The Discovery of the Antarctic Ozone Hole.” Nature 575 (7781): 46–47. doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-02837-5
Pyle, John, and Neil Harris. 2013. “Joe Farman (1930–2013).” Nature 498 (7455): 435–35. doi.org/10.1038/498435a.
Foege, William H, and Milbank Memorial Fund. House on Fire : The Fight to Eradicate Smallpox. Berkeley, University Of California Press, 2012
Future of Life Institute. “Future of Life Award 2020: Saving 200,000,000 Lives by Eradicating Smallpox.” Future of Life Institute, Lucas Perry, 11 Dec. 2020, futureoflife.org/the-future-of-life-podcast/.
People all around the world tend to represent time via space, but there’s no consensus on which way time goes.
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SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH
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If you like what we do, you can help us!:
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CREDITS
*********
Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director
Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation
Nathaniel Schroeder | Music
MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC
neptunestudios.info
OUR STAFF
************
Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius
David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez
Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich
Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida
OUR LINKS
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Youtube | youtube.com/MinuteEarth
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Twitter | twitter.com/MinuteEarth
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Website | minuteearth.com
Apple Podcasts| podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176
REFERENCES
**************
Bergen, B. K. & Lau, T. T. C. (2012) Writing direction affects how people map space onto time. Frontiers in Psychology 3:109. frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00109/full
Boroditsky, L. (2000). Metaphoric Structuring: Understanding time through spatial metaphors. Cognition, 75(1), 1-28. sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010027799000736
Casasanto, D. & Boroditsky, L. (2008). Time in the mind: Using space to think about time. Cognition 106 (2):579-593 http://lera.ucsd.edu/papers/duration-cognition-2008.pdf
Majid, A., Gaby, A., & Boroditsky, L. (2013). Time in terms of space. Frontiers in Psychology, 4: 554. frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00554/full
Núñez, R., Cooperrider, K., Doan, D., & Wassmann, J. (2012). Contours of time: Topographic construals of past, present, and future in the Yupno valley of Papua New Guinea. Cognition, 124(1), 25– 35. sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010027712000571