The Great War
Medical Treatment in World War 1 I THE GREAT WAR Special
updated
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The Polish-Soviet War was one of the most important conflicts in the aftermath of the First World War when Eastern Europe was in flux. Both the Polish and the Bolshevik Army had the advantage numerous times and at the Battle of Warsaw is looked like the Bolsheviks would carry the revolution into Western Europe.
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» SOURCES
Smele, Jonathan. The ‘Russian’ Civil Wars 1916-1926 (London: Hurst, 2015).
Mawdsley, Evan. The Russian Civil War (New York: Pegasus Books, 2005).
Leonhard, Jörn. Der überforderte Frieden. Versailles und die Welt 1918-1923 (CH Beck, 2018).
Macmillan, Margaret. The Peacemakers: Six Months That Changed the World (London: John Murray, 2001)
Dudko, Oksana: Polish-Ukrainian Conflict over Eastern Galicia , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2014-10-08 encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/polish-ukrainian_conflict_over_eastern_galicia
Davies, Norman. White Eagle Red Star (Random House, 2003 (1972))
Böhler, Jochen. Civil War in Central Europe, 1918-1921 (Oxford University Press, 2019)
Timothy Snyder. The Reconstruction of Nations. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003)
Centek, Jarosław: Polish-Soviet War 1920-1921 , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2014-10-08
Borzecki, Jerzy. The Polish-Soviet Peace of 1921 and the Creation of Interwar Europe (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2008)
Engelstein, Laura. Russia in Flames (Oxford University Press, 2017).
Lehnstaedt, Stephan. Der Vergessene Sieg. Der Polnisch-Sowjetische Krieg 1919-1921 und die Entstehung des modernen Osteuropa (CH Beck, 2019)
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The Rif War between Spain and the Rif Republic gave rise to a young Spanish officer named Francisco Franco - who later would become Spanish dictator. After Spain had almost lost the war against the Rifi people, they got help from France and WW1 hero Philippe Pétain.
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Álvarez, José E., The Betrothed of Death: The Spanish Foreign Legion During the Rif Rebellion, 1920-1927, (Westport, CT : Greenwood Press, 2001)
Balfour, Sebastian & La Porte, Pablo, “Spanish Military Cultures and the Moroccan
Wars, 1909–36”, European History Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 3, (2000)
Chandler, James M. “Spain and Her Moroccan Protectorate 1898 - 1927”, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 10, No. 2, (1975)
Harris, Walter B,. France, Spain and the Rif, (London : Edward Arnold & Co., 1927)
Maddy-Weitzman, Bruce, “Abdelkrim: Whose Hero is He? The Politics of Contested Memory in Today's Morocco”, The Brown Journal of World Affairs, Vol. 18, No. 2, (2012)
Pack, Sasha D, The Deepest Border : The Strait of Gibraltar and the Making of the Modern Hispano-African Borderland, (Stanford, CA : Stanford University Press, 2019)
Pennell, C R, A Country with a Government and a Flag: the Rif War in Morocco, 1921-1926, (Wisbech : Middle East and North African Studies Press Ltd, 1986)
Pennell, C R, “Ideology and Practical Politics: A Case Study of the Rif War in Morocco, 1921-1926”, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 14, No. 1, (1982)
Peyron, Michael, The Berbers of Morocco: A History of Resistance, (London : Bloomsbury, 2020)
Sangster, Andrew, Probing the Enigma of Franco, (Cambridge : Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2018)
Woolman, David S. Rebels in the Rif: Abd el Krim and the Rif Rebellion, (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1969)
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» SOURCES
• Leo Amery (ed.) The Times History of the War in South Africa, 7 Volumes, (London, William Clowes, 1902-1909)
• A British Officer, An Absent Minded War (London, Milne, 1900)
• Thomas Pakenham, The Boer War (London, Abacus, 1979)
• John Gooch (ed.) The Boer War: Direction, Image and Experience (London, Frank Cass, 1999)
• Fransjohan Pretorius, Life on Commando (Cape Town, Human & Rousseau, 2000)
• Fransjohan Pretorius, The Historical Dictionary of the Anglo-Boer War (Lanham, Scarecrow Press, 2010)
• Peter Trew, The Boer War Generals (Johannesburg, Jonathan Ball, 1999)
• S.B. Spies, Methods of Barbarism? Roberts and Kitchener and Civilians in the Boer Republics (Cape Town, Human & Rousseau, 1977)
• Emily Hobhouse, The Brunt of War and Where it Fell (London, Methuen & Co., 1902)
• Deneys Reitz, Commando (London, Faber & Faber, 1905)
• Peter Warwick (ed.) The South African War (Harlow, Longman, 1980)
• Spencer Jones, From Boer War to World War: Tactical Reform of the British Army 1902 – 1914 (Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 2012)
• Spencer Jones, 'Shooting Power: A Study of the Effectiveness of Boer and British Rifle Fire, 1899-1914' in the British Journal for Military History, Vol.1, Issue 1, 2014.
• Bill Nasson, The South African War 1899 – 1902 (London, Arnold, 1999)
• Stephen Miller, Volunteers on the Veld: Britain’s Citizen Soldiers and the South African War 1899-1902 (Norman, University of Oklahoma, 2007)
• Fred R. van Hartesveldt, The Boer War: Historiography and Annotated Bibliography (London, Greenwood, 2000)
• Peter Dennis and Jeffrey Grey (ed.), The Boer War: Army, Nation and Empire (Canberra, Army History Unit, 2000)
• John Stirling, Our Regiments in South Africa (London, W. Blackwood, 1903)
• Winston S. Churchill, London to Ladysmith via Pretoria (London, Longmans, Green & Co, 1900)
• Ian Hamilton and Victor Sampson, Anti-Commando (London, Faber & Faber, 1931)
• Andre Wessels (ed.) Lord Roberts and the War in South Africa 1899 – 1902 (London, Army Records Society, 2000)
• Andre Wessels (ed.) Lord Kitchener and the War in South Africa 1899 – 1902 (London, Army Records Society, 2006)
• Roy Jenkins, Churchill. A Biography, (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, 2001)
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The Battle of Cambrai 1917 didn't have a clear winner, but the conclusions that Germany and Britain drew from it, particularly about the use of the tank (in combinations with other arms), would have far reaching consequences in 1918.
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» SOURCES
Boff, Jonahan. Haig’s Enemy. 2018.
Hammond, Bryn. Cambrai 1917: The Myth of the First Great Tank Battle. 2008.
Pöhlmann, Markus. Der Panzer und die Mechanisierung des Krieges: eine deutsche Geschichte 1890-1945. 2016.
Sheldon, Jack. The German Army at Cambrai. 2009.
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The Spanish-American War (fought in Cuba and the Philippines) kickstarted US global ambitions and expanded their influence far beyond the borders of the United States. At the same time the war marked the endpoint of the decline of Spain as a global power.
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» SOURCES
Brannen, Daniel E. Jr., Spanish-American War, (Farmington Hills, MI : Thomson-Gale, 2003)
Cerezo, Don Saturnino Martin, Under the Red and Gold, Being Notes and Recollections of the Siege of Baler, (Kansas City, MO : Franklin Hudson Publishing Co., 1909)
Henrickson, Kenneth E. Jr.,, The Spanish-American War, (Westport, CT : Greenwood Press, 2003)
Jude Paul Cleope, Earl; Rhimmel Hermandez; Victor Jimenez et al., Philippine History Source Book, (Manila : National Commission for Culture and the Arts, 2021)
Parker, John J. The Gatlings of Santiago: the History of the Gatling Gun Detachment, U. S. Fifth Army Corps, During the Spanish-American War, Cuba, 1898, (Leonaur Publishing, 2010)
Quesada, Alejandro de, The Spanish-American War and Philippine Insurrection: 1889-1902, (Oxford : Osprey Publishing, 2007)
Roosevelt, Theodore, The Rough Riders, (New York, NY : Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1899)
Schult, Volker & Wionzek, Harl-Heinz (eds.), The German and Austrian Navies in the Philippines and their role in the Spanish-American War of 1898, (Manila : National Historical Commission of the Philippines, 2017)
Telfer, George F. Manila Envelopes: Oregon Volunteer Lt. George F. Telfer’s Spanish-American War Letters, (Portland, OR : The Oregon Historical Society Press, 1987)
Valiña, Cayetano, ‘Diary of Cayetano Valiña’
Werstein, Irving, 1898: The Spanish-American War, (New York, NY : Cooper Square Publishers, Inc., 1966)
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Vladimir Lenin had led the Bolshevik movement through the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War but by 1922 his health was failing and infighting among Bolshevik leadership caused friction. In the end Josef Stalin was able to prevail over Leon Trotsky and lead the newly founded Soviet Union until his death in 1953.
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» SOURCES
Безбородов А.Б. История Коммунистической партии Советского Союза (Москва: Политическая энциклопедия, 2013)
Молчанов В.М. Последний белый генерал. Устные воспоминания, статьи, письма, документы (Москва: Айрис-пресс, 2012)
Саблин И. Дальневосточная республика: от идеи до ликвидации (Москва: НЛО, 2020)
Хлевнюк О. Сталин. Жизнь одного вождя: биография (Москва: CORPUS, 2015)
Якутия: последние сражения Гражданской войны (поход генерала А.Н. Пепеляева в Якутию в 1922-1923 гг.) // Северо-Восточный гуманитарный вестник. 2018. №3. C. 34-43.
Smele, Jonathan. The ‘Russian’ Civil Wars 1916-1926 (London: Hurst, 2015).
Smele Jonathan D. Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926 (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015)
Figes, Orlando. A People’s Tragedy. The Russian Revolution (The Bodley Head, 2017(1996))
Stalin, JV. “Report Delivered at the First Congress of Soviets of the U.S.S.R. December 30, 1922.” (Marxist archive marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1922/12/30.htm)
Izvestiia, January 1, 1923.
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The Balkan Wars marked the end of Ottoman rule in Southeastern Europe, and they involved several countries that would join the First World War just a few years later. A complicated alliance between Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece imploded over disagreement of the war spoils after defeating the Ottomans. This led to the 2nd Balkan War and also created much resentment that would play a role between 1914 and 1918 too.
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» SOURCES
Clark, Christopher, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914, (London : Penguin Books, 2013)
McMeekin, Sean. The Ottoman Endgame (Penguin, 2015)
Hall, Richard. The Balkan Wars: Prelude to the First World War (2000)
Erickson, Edward. Defeat in Detail: the Ottoman Army in the Balkans (2003)
Kemal, Mustafa. Zabit ve Kumandan ile Hasbihal (1918 (2017))
Scott, Georges. Dans les Balkans 1912-13. Récits et visions de guerre (nd)
Paunić, Dragutin and Milija Đorđević. Srbijice, dušo gorka (Novi Sad, 2019 (1988))
Popescu Vava, Lucian, “Mărturii contemporane despre epidemia de holeră din campania militară a Armatei Române în anul 1913,” in Oltenia. Studii şi comunicări. Arheologie – Istorie vol. XXV (2018)
Üngör, Ugur Ümit, “Mass Violence Against Civilian During the Balkan Wars,” in Mulligan, William, Andreas Rose and Dominik Geppert, eds. The Wars Before the Great War (Cambridge UP, 2015)
Ilinchev, Kiril. “Хора-реликви” (https://bnt.bg/news/hora-relikvi-294302news.html)
Constantine of Greece. “A King’s private letters. Being letters written by King Konstantine of Greece to Paola princess of Saxe-Weimar during the years 1912 to 1923, Eveleigh Nash & Greyson Ltd”, London, 1923.
Myrivilis, Stratis. “War”, in “Short Stories”, Mytilene, (1928)
Kolev, Valery and Christina Koulouri, eds. The Balkan Wars. (Center for Democracy and Reconciliation in Southeast Europe, 2009)
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The Anglo-Irish Treaty and the withdrawal of Great Britain from almost all of Ireland was supposed to be a big step towards full Irish independence. But the pro-Treaty Irish Free State and the anti-Treaty IRA couldn't bridge their differences and so the Irish Civil War broke out. With further support from Britain and drastic measures, the Irish National Army was able to quell the IRA uprising that didn't have the popular support they previously enjoyed.
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» SOURCES
Coogan, Tim Pat & Morrison, George. The Irish Civil War, (London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1998)
Cottrell, Peter. The War for Ireland: 1913 - 1923, (Oxford : Osprey Publishing, 2009)
Enright, Seán. The Irish Civil War: Law, Execution and Atrocity, (Newbridge : Merrion Press, 2019)
Foster, Gavin M. The Irish Civil War and Society: Politics, Class and Conflict, (New York, NY : Palgrave and Macmillan, 2015)
Hopkinson, Michael. Green Against Green: The Irish Civil War, (Dublin : Gill and Macmillan Ltd, 1988)
Irish Independent, (17/03/1922)
Kissane, Bill. The Politics of the Irish Civil War, (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2008)
Lewis, Matthew. “The Fourth Northern Division and the Joint-IRA Offensive, April—July 1922”, War in History, Vol. 21, No. 3 (July 2014)
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The defeat of the Ottoman Empire in 1918 meant that it got its own peace treaty like the other three Central Powers. But the emerging Turkish National Movement under Mustafa Kemal resisted the Treaty of Sevres and occupation by various Entente Powers. Their successful resistance led to the creation of modern Turkey and the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.
Salvation and Catastrophe - The Greek-Turkish War, 1919–1922 Edited by KONSTANTINOS TRAVLOS: rowman.com/ISBN/9781498585088/Salvation-and-Catastrophe-The-Greek-Turkish-War-1919%E2%80%931922
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John Ozment, James Darcangelo, Jacob Carter Landt, Thomas Brendan, Kurt Gillies, Scott Deederly, John Belland, Adam Smith, Taylor Allen, Rustem Sharipov, Christoph Wolf, Simen Røste, Marcus Bondura, Ramon Rijkhoek, Theodore Patrick Shannon, Philip Schoffman, Avi Woolf, Emile Bouffard, William Kincade, Daniel L Garza, Stefan Weiß, Matt Barnes, Chris Daley, Marco Kuhnert, Simdoom
» SOURCES
Akyüz, Doruk. “Legacy of the Stormtroop: The Influence of German Assault Troop Doctrines in the Great Offensive,” in Konstantinos Travlos, ed. Salvation and Catastrophe, The Greek-Turkish War 1919-1922 (2020).
Criss, Nur Bilge: Occupation during and after the War (Ottoman Empire), in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2015-08-05 encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/occupation_during_and_after_the_war_ottoman_empire
Danglis, Panagiotis: Memoirs.
Edib Adivar, Halide. The Turkish Ordeal: Being the Further Memoirs of Halidé Edib, (Piscataway : Gorgias Press, 2012)
Erickson, Edward J. “Decisive Battles of the Asia Minor Campaign 1919-1922,” in Konstantinos Travlos, ed. Salvation and Catastrophe, The Greek-Turkish War 1919-1922 (2020).
Fromkin, David. A Peace to End All Peace (New York: Avon, 1989)
Kemal, Gazi M. Nutuk-Söylev, Cilt II: 1920–1927, Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi
Gerwarth, Robert. The Vanquished. Why the First World War Failed to End, 1917-1923 (Penguin, 2017).
Karsh, Efraim and Inari Karsh. Empires of the Sand (London: Harvard UP, 1999)
Llewelyn-Smith, Michael: Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919-1922, 1973.
McMeekin, Sean. The Ottoman Endgame (Penguin, 2015)
Margaret Macmillan, Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World, (London : Macmillan,
2019)
Toynbee, Arnold: The Western Question in Greece and Turkey. A Study in the Contact of Civilizations, Boston 1922.
Travlos, Konstantinos. “Introduction,” in Konstantinos Travlos, ed. Salvation and Catastrophe, The Greek-Turkish War 1919-1922 (2020).
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The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo on the 28th of June 1914 kicked off a crisis among the European Powers. Tensions that built up in the decades before erupted and in early August 1914 the world was at war. But what happened in these fateful July weeks 1914?
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Daniel L Garza, Stefan Weiß, Matt Barnes, Chris Daley, Marco Kuhnert, Simdoom
» SOURCES
Albertini, Luigi, The Origins of the War of 1914: Volume II, (Westport, CT : Greenwood Press, Publishers 1980)
Becker, Jean-Jacques & Krumeich, Gerd, “Outbreak” in Winter, Jay (ed), The Cambridge History of the First World War: Volume I, (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2013)
Berghahn, Volker R., “Origins” in Winter, Jay (ed), The Cambridge History of the First World War: Volume I, (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2013)
Bischof, Günter & Karlhofer, Ferdinand (eds), 1914: Austria-Hungary, the Origins, and the First Year of World War I, (Innsbruck : Innsbruck University Press, 2014)
Clark, Christopher, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914, (London : Penguin Books, 2013)
Hamilton, Richard F. & Herwig, Holger H. (eds), The Origins of World War I, (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2012)
Levy, Jack S., “Preferences, Constraints, and Choices in July 1914” in Miller, Steven E., Lynn-Jones, Sean M. & Van Evera, Stephen (eds.), Military Strategy and the Origins of the First World War: An International Security Reader, (Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press, 1991)
McMeekin, Sean, The Russian Origins of the First World War, (Cambridge, MA : The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011)
Mombauer, Annika, The Origins of the First World War: Controversies and Consensus (London: Pearson, 2002)
Paddock, Troy R.E., Contesting the Origins of the First World War: An Historiographical Argument, (Oxford : Routledge, 2020)
Kaiser Wilhelm II & Tsar Nicholas II, “The “Willy-Nicky” Telegrams” in Neiberg, Michael S. (ed.), The World War I Reader, (New York, NY : New York University Press, 2007)
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The start of the Brusilov Offensive was the most successful Russian military operation during the First World War. It crippled the Austro-Hungarian Army and forced the Germans to divert troops from Verdun. But the Brusilov Offensive ultimately was a failure and cost the Russian's an enormous amount of men. What went wrong?
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Daniel L Garza, Stefan Weiß, Matt Barnes, Chris Daley, Marco Kuhnert, Simdoom
» SOURCES
Buttar, Prit, Russia’s Last Gasp: The Eastern Front 1916-1917, (Oxford : Osprey Publishing, 2016)
Dowling, Timothy C., The Brusilov Offensive, (Indianapolis : Indiana University Press, 2008)
Golovin, Nicholas, “Brusilov's Offensive: The Galician Battle of 1916”, The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 13, Number 39, (1935)
Schindler, John, “Steamrollered in Galicia: The Austro-Hungarian Army and the Brusilov Offensive, 1916”, War in History, Volume 10, Number 1, (2003)
Stone, David R., The Russian Army in the Great War: The Eastern Front, 1914-1917, (Lawrence, KS : University Press of Kansas, 2015)
Tunstall, Graydon A., “Austria-Hungary and the Brusilov Offensive of 1916”, The Historian, Volume 70, Issue 1, (2008)
Uzefovich, Alexis M., “Russia in the World War, 1914-1918”, The Military Engineer,
Volume 33, Number 190, (1941)
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The Allied 1917 Spring Offensive masterminded by French general Robert Nivelle was supposed to end the stalemate on the Western Front and bring a decisive breakthrough. But the German Army also knew they couldn't win the war on the offensive and thus prepared a new type of defensive system: The Hindenburg Line and it would be tested in the Battles of Arras (Vimy Ridge, Bullecourt) and Chemins des Dames (Aisne).
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» SOURCES
Cook, Tim, “Storm Troops: Combat Effectiveness and the Canadian Corps in 1917” in Dennis, Jeffrey & Grey, Peter (eds), 1917: Tactics, Training and Technology: the 2007 Chief of Army's Military History Conference, (Canberra : Australian History Military Publications, 2007)
Coombes, David, Bloody Bullecourt, (Barnsley : Pen & Sword Military, 2016)
Doughty, Robert T, Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operations in the Great War, (Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press, 2005)
Doughty, Robert A, “How did France Weather the Troubles of 1917?” in Dennis, Jeffrey & Grey, Peter (eds), 1917: Tactics, Training and Technology: the 2007 Chief of Army's Military History Conference, (Canberra : Australian History Military Publications, 2007)
Farr, Don, A Battle Too Far: Arras 1917, (Warwick ; Helion & Company, 2018)
Foley, Robert T, “The Other Side of the Wire: The German Army in 1917” in Dennis, Jeffrey & Grey, Peter (eds), 1917: Tactics, Training and Technology: the 2007 Chief of Army's Military History Conference, (Canberra : Australian History Military Publications, 2007)
Lupfer, Timothy T, “The Dynamics of Doctrine: The Changes in German Tactical Doctrine During the First World War” Leavenworth Papers, No. 4, Combat Studies Institute
U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, (Fort Leavenworth, KS : 1981)
Nicholls, Jonathan, Cheerful Sacrifice: The Battle of Arras 1917, (London : Leo Cooper, 1990)
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» SOURCES
Adams, Arthur E, “The Bolsheviks and the Ukrainian Front in 1918-1919”, The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 36, Number 87, (1958)
Darch, Colin Major, “The Makhnovshina, 1917-1921: Ideology, nationalism, and peasant insurgency in early twentieth century Ukraine”, Department of Social and Economic Studies, University of Bradford, (1994)
Dmytryshyn, Basil, Moscow and the Ukraine, 1918-1953; A study of Russian Bolshevik Nationality Policy, (New York : Bookman Associates, 1956)
Guthier, Steven L, “The Popular Base of Ukrainian Nationalism in 1917”, Slavic Review, Volume 38, Issue 1, (1979)
Kubicek, Paul, The History of Ukraine, (Westport, CT : Greenwood Press)
McGeever, Brendan, Antisemitism and the Russian Revolution, (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2019)
Shkandrij, Myroslav, Revolutionary Ukraine, 1917-2017: History’s Flashpoints and Today’s Memory Wars, (New York : Routledge, 2020)
Snyder, Timothy. The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus 1569-1999 (London: Yale University Press, 2003)
Sullivant, Robert S., Soviet Politics and the Ukraine: 1917-1957, (New York : Columbia University Press, 1962)
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The Chinese Warlord Era was a violent period of chaos and civil war in which multiple factions (so called cliques) fought each other over supremacy in China. After the first Anhui-Zhili War the situation escalated further and more players joined this game of thrones.
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» SOURCES
Ch’en, Jerome, “The Chinese Communist Movement to 1927” in Fairbank, John K. & Twitchett, Denis (eds.) The Cambridge History of China: Volume 12, Republican China 1912-1949, Part 1, (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2005)
Dreyer, Edward L. China at War 1901-1949, (New York : Longman Publishing, 1995)
Gray, Jack, Rebellions and Revolutions: China from the 1800s to 2000, (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2002)
Jordan, Donald A, The Northern Expedition: China’s National Revolution of 1926-1928, (Honolulu, HI : University of Hawaii Press, 2019)
Jowett, Philip, Chinese Warlord Armies 1911-30, (Oxford : Osprey Publishing, 2010)
Kwong Chi Man, War and Geopolitics in Interwar Manchuria: Zhang Zuolin and the Fengtian Clique during the Northern Expedition, (Leiden : Brill, 2017)
McCord, Edward A. “Burn, Kill, Rape, and Rob: Military Atrocities, Warlordism, and Anti-Warlordism in Republican China” in Lary, Diana & MacKinnon, Stephen (eds.) Scars of War: The Impact of Warfare on Modern China, (Toronto : UBC Press, 2001)
McCord, Edward A. The Power of the Gun, The Emergence of Modern Chinese Warlordism, (Berkeley : University of California Press)
Nish, Ian, Japanese Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period, (Wesport, CT : Praeger Publishers, 2002)
Sheridan, James E. The warlord era: politics and militarism under the Peking government, 1916-28 in Fairbank, John K. & Twitchett, Denis (eds.) The Cambridge History of China: Volume 12, Republican China 1912-1949, Part 1, (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2005)
Suleski, Ronald, Civil Government in Warlord Tradition, Modernization and Manchuria, (New York : Peter Lang Publishing, 2002)
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The Russo-Japanese War is nicknamed World War Zero - it was a clash between two world powers that foreshadowed war on an industrial scale as seen just 10 years later again. Gigantic land battles like the Battle of Mukden showed the true cost in manpower and materiel when modern armies clashed and the naval side of the war showed the strategic importance of modern navies.
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» BIBLIOGRAPHY
Akiyama Saneyuki, Gundan (Tokyo : Jitsugyō no Nihonsha, 1917)
Atsuo Yokoyama; Toshikatsu Nishikawa & Ichō Konsōshiamu, Heishitachi ga mita Nichi-Ro sensō, (Tokyo : Yūzankaku, 2012)
Corbett, Julian S. Maritime Operations in the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905, Volume I, (Annapolis, MD : Naval Institute Press, 2015)
Corbett, Julian S. Maritime Operations in the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905, Volume II, (Annapolis, MD : Naval Institute Press, 2015)
Деникин А. И. Путь русского офицера. (Нью-Йорк: Изд. им. А. Чехова, 1953)
Forczyk, Robert, Russian Battleship vs Japanese Battleship: Yellow Sea 1904-05, (Oxford : Osprey Publishing Ltd, 2009)
Hamby, Joel E, “Striking the Balance: Strategy and Force in the Russo-Japanese War” Armed Forces & Society, Vol. 30, No. 3 (2004)
Hosokawa Gentarō, Byōinsen Kōsai Maru kenbunroku (Tokyo : Hakubunkan Shinsha, 1993)
Ivanov, A & Jowett P, The Russo-Japanese War 1904-05, (Oxford : Osprey Publishing Ltd, 2004)
Jacob, Frank, The Russo-Japanese War and its Shaping of the Twentieth Century, (London : Routledge, 2017)
Jukes, Geoffrey, The Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905, (Oxford : Osprey Publishing Ltd, 2014)
Kowner, Rotem (ed), Rethinking the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5, Volume 1: Centennial Perspectives, (Folkestone : Global Oriental, 2007)
Lynch, George & Palmer, Frederick, In Many Wars By Many War Correspondnets, (Tokyo : Tokyo Printing Co. 1904)
Mozawa Yusaku, Aru hohei no Nichi-Ro Sensō jūgun nikki (Tokyo : Sōshisha, 2005)
Murakami Hyōe, Konoe Rentai ki (Tokyo : Akita Shoten, 1967)
Paine, S. C. M. The Japanese Empire: Grand Strategy from the Meiji Restoration to the Pacific War, (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2017)
Steinberg, John W; Meaning, Bruce W; Schimmelpennick van der Oye, David; Wolff, David & Yokote, Shinji (eds.), The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero, (Leiden : Brill, 2005)
Stille, Mark, The Imperial Japanese Navy of the Russo-Japanese War, (Oxford : Osprey Publishing Ltd, 2016)
Takagi Suiu, Jinsei hachimenkan (Tokyo : Teikoku Kyōiku Kenkyūkai, 1927)
van Dijk, Kees, Pacific Strife: The Great Powers and Their Political and Economic Rivalries in Asia and the Western Pacific, 1870-1914, (Amsterdam : Amsterdam University Press, 2015)
Warner, Denis & Warner, Peggy, The Tide at Sunrise: A History of the Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905, (London : Angus & Robertson, 1974)
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The Italo-Turkish War 1911 was one of the last classic imperial wars over colonial processions between two great powers. But it was in many ways also a first glimpse into what would come during the First World War: trenches, artillery, combat aircraft, motorboat attacks. This war in Ottoman Libya was fought between the Italian Army and Ottoman-led local Senussi forces.
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» SOURCES
Askew, William C. Europe and Italy’s Acquisition of Libya, 1911-1912, (Durham, NC : Duke University Press, 1942)
Caccamo, Francesco, “Italy, Libya and the Balkans” in Geppert, Dominik ; Mulligan, William & Rose, Andreas (eds.), The Wars before the Great War: Conflict and International Politics Before the Outbreak of the First World War, (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2016)
Childs, Timothy W, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War Over Libya, 1911–1912, (Leiden : Brill, 1990)
Griffin, Ernest H., Adventures in Tripoli: A Doctor in the Desert (London: Philip Allen & Co., 1924)
Hindmarsh. Albert E. & Wilson, George Grafton, “War Declared and the Use of Force”, Proceedings of the American Society of International Law at Its Annual Meeting (1921-1969) Vol. 32 (1938)
McCollum Jonathan, “Reimagining Mediterranean Spaces: Libya and the Italo-Turkish War, 1911-1912," in Mediterraneo cosmopolita, 23 (3) 2015.
McMeekin, Sean, The Ottoman Endgame (Penguin, 2013).
Paris, Michael, “The First Air Wars - North Africa and the Balkans, 1911-13”, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 26, No. 1 (1991)
Stephenson, Charles, A Box of Sand: the Italo-Ottoman War 1911-1912: the First Land, Sea and Air War, (Ticehurst : Tattered Flag Press, 2014)
Tittoni, Renato, The Italo -Turkish War (1911-12.) Translated and Compiled from the Reports of the Italian General Staff, (Kansas City, MO : Frank Hudson Publishing Company, 1914)
Uyar, Mesut, The Ottoman Army and the First World War, (Abingdon : Routledge, 2021)
Vandervort, Bruce, Wars of Imperial Conquest in Africa 1830-1914, (Bloomington, IN : Indiana University Press, 1998)
Wilcox, Vanda, Italy in the Era of the Great War, (Leiden : Brill, 2018)
Wilcox, Vanda, “The Italian Soldiers' experience in Libya, 1911-12” in Geppert, Dominik ; Mulligan, William & Rose, Andreas (eds.), The Wars before the Great War: Conflict and International Politics Before the Outbreak of the First World War, (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2016)
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The Irish and British sides of the Irish War of Independence were exhausted from two years of fighting. The IRA was also about to run out of ammunition and other vital supplies to keep up the fight. And so the British government and the Irish delegation started to negotiate a treaty.
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Cottrell, Peter, The Irish Civil War 1922-23, (Oxford : Osprey Publishing, 2015)
De Valera, Eamon & Moynihan, Maurice, Speeches and Statements by Eamon de Valera, 1917-73, (Dublin : Gill and Macmillan, 1980)
Gibbons, Ivan, Partition: How and Why Ireland Was Divided, (London : Haus Publishing, 2021)
Hawkings, F. M. A. “Defence and the Role of Erskine Childers in the Treaty Negotiations of 1921”, Irish Historical Studies, Vol. 22, No. 87 (Mar., 1981)
Hopkinson, Michael, Green Against Green - The Irish Civil War : a History of the Irish Civil War, 1922-1923, (Dublin : Gill & Macmillan, 2010)
Knirck, Jason K, Imagining Ireland’s Independence: The Debates over the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, (Lanham, MA : Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2006)
Mansergh, Nicholas, The Irish Free State: Its Government and Politics, (London : George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1934)
Mansergh, Nicholas, The Unresolved Question: The Anglo-Irish Settlement and Its Undoing 1912-72, (New Haven, CT : Yale University Press, 1991)
“Sinn Fein President Will Not Recommend Treaty Acceptance for Ireland”, Morning Press, Volume L, Number 78, (9 December 1921)
Townshend, Charles, The Republic: The Fight For Irish Independence 1918 - 1923, (London : Penguin Books, 2014)
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Benito Mussolini's national fascist movement was a fringe phenomenon right after the First World War and couldn't gain much traction in the 1919 elections. But soon after Mussolini was increasing his political standing and the National Fascist Party gained more members than ever before.
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Alcalde, Ángel, War Veterans and Fascism in Interwar Europe, (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2017)
Bosworth, R. J. B. Mussolini, (London : Bloomsbury Academic, 2010)
De Grand, Alexander, Italian Fascism: Its Origins & Development, (Lincoln, NB : University of Nebraska Press, 1989)
Duggan, Christopher, Force of Destiny : A History of Italy since 1796, (London : Penguin Books, 2008)
Martins, Carlos Manuel, From Hitler to Codreanu: The Ideology of Fascist Leaders, (London : Routledge, 2020)
Neville, Peter, Mussolini, (London : Routledge, 2004)
Weyland, Curt, Assault on Democracy: Communism, Fascism, and Authoritarianism During the Interwar Years, (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2021)
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Historian, battlefield guide and friend of the show Dan Hill has launched virtual battlefield tours last year. Using modern streaming technology, Battleguide Tours' aim is to bring you the experience of a battlefield tour from the comfort of your own home. Jesse has been offering a Battle of the Reichstag Tour and in this video they show you how such a tour looks like in practice.
After the armistice of Mudros in 1918, the Ottoman Empire started to dissolve while being occupied by Allied powers and several independence movements erupted across its territory. The Turkish National Movement didn't want to accept any territorial changes in their heartland and fought back against France in the Cilicia Campaign or the Franco-Turkish War.
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» SOURCES
Primary Sources:
Abadie, Maurice : Les quatre Sièges d’Aïntab. Opérations au Levant. “Onze mois dans le Verdun turc.” Paris 1922.
Cetintaş, Cengiz: Gaziantep, Kahramanmaraş, Sanlıurfa Savunmaları ve Ankara Antlaşması: TBMM Tutanaklarında Kurtuluş Savaşı. (Parliamentary Notes from 1920-21).
Goudot: Haut-commissariat de la République Française en Syrie et au Liban, La Syrie et le Liban en 1921. La Foire-Exposition de Beyrouth. Conférences. Liste des récompenses, Paris 1922.
Hartunian, Abraham: Neither to Laugh Nor to Weep: An Odyssey of Faith, A Memoir of the Armenian Genocide, Belmont 1999.
Cmd. 1570, Turkey No. 1 (1922), Correspondence Between his Majesty’s Government and the French Government and the French Government Respecting the Angora Agreement of October 20, 1921.
Kerr, Stanley: The Lions of Marash: Personal Experiences with American Near East Relief, Albany 1973.
Kevorkian, Raymond : “L’évacuation française de la Cilicie en 1921 vue par officier Vahan Portoukalian.”
Secondary Sources:
Duclerc, Vincent: La France face au Génocide des Arméniens.
Durand, Bernard: « Le mandat sur l’Arménie n’aura pas lieu? » Un drame au coeur de Turquie, de la Cilicie et de la Syrie (1915-1920; Revue historique du droit français (1922-), vol. 95, 3, p. 493-510.
Fromkin, David: A Peace to End All Peace (1990)
Gotikian, Guévork: « La Légion d’Orient et le mandat français en Cilicie (1916-1921) », Revue d'histoire arménienne contemporaine, vol. III: La Cilicie (1909-1921), 1999.
Güçlü, Yücel: Armenians and the Allies in Cilicia 1914-1923 (2010).
Kévonian, Dzovinar: Réfugiés et diplomatie humanitaire (Paris, 2003).
Moumdjian, Garabet: Cilicia under French administration: Armenian Aspirations, Turkish Resistance, and French Stratagems, 2007.
White, Benjamin Thomas: A Grudging Rescue; France, the Armenians of Cilicia and the History of Humanitarian Evacuations; Humanity: An international Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development, Vol. 10, 1, p. 1-27.
Zarifian, Julien, « La montée du kémalisme en Cilicie. 1919-1920: l'administration française du Sandjak de Kozan face au nationalisme turc », CEMOTI, Cahiers d'Études sur la Méditerranée Orientale et le monde Turco-Iranien, vol. 38, no 38, 2004, p. 235-260.
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The Battle of the Rhineland was one of the largest WW2 battles the Allies fought on German soil and part of the critical final campaign against Nazi Germany on the western front.Rhineland 45 is the most detailed documentary about the last set piece battle on the Western Front of the Second World War: The Rhineland Campaign.
The Battle for the Rhineland was a series of operations in early 1945, the dramatic finale of the Allied advance from the coast of Normandy to the borders of the Reich. The desperate German forces had managed to form a last line of defence with their backs to the Rhine – the famous river that stood between the Allies and the heart of the German Reich.
Today the Rhineland campaign (Operations Veritable, Grenade and Plunder/Varsity) is often overlooked when we remember the last weeks of World War 2. The operation and its results were already hotly debated among the Allied generals while the war was still raging. In popular memory, the Rhine crossing is mostly associated with the Bridge at Remagen the popularized narrative we know from the movie with the same name – though the brunt of the fighting happened further to the North in the Rhineland region.
Produced with the support of 2500+ backers, Rhineland 45 - Decision In The West is our second crowdfunded documentary series. This kind of documentary could only be made with crowdfunding. Neither the traditional broadcast companies, TV stations nor YouTube would be suitable for our vision. We wanted to tell the story of this battle as accurately as possible without any interference or content restrictions.
realtimehistory.net/rhineland45
The German post-WW1 economy was under pressure: The loss of territory, the war bonds issued during the war and the reparations under the Treaty of Versailles. All this lead to a downward spiral of rising inflation and living costs for German citizens.
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» SOURCES
Feldman, Gerald: Vom Weltkrieg zur Weltwirtschaftskrise. Studien zur deutschen Wirtschafts-und Sozialgeschichte 1914-1932. 1984.
Fergusson, Adam: Das Ende des Geldes. Hyperinflation und ihre Folgen für die Menschen am Beispiel der Weimarer Republik, 1975.
Grosch, Waldemar: Deutsche und polnische Propaganda während der Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien 1919-1921. 2002.
Lewek, Peter: Arbeitslosigkeit und Arbeitslosenversicherung in der Weimarer republik 1918-1927. 1989.
Michalczyk, Andrezej: Celebrating the nation: the case of Upper Silesia after the plebiscite in 1921.
Neubach, Helmut: Die Abstimmung in Oberschlesien am 20. März 1921.2002.
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The famine and the Bolshevik policy of War Communism during the Russian Civil War created a unique situation in Western Siberia that led to the largest peasant uprising against the Communists of the entire Russian Civil War.
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» SOURCES
Московкин В.В. Восстание крестьян в Западной Сибири в 1921 г. // Вопросы истории.1998. No 6. С. 46–65.
Шишкин В.И. Вооруженное сопротивление сибирского крестьянства коммунистическому режиму в начале 1920-х гг. // История сталинизма: крестьянство и власть. Материалы международной научной конференции (Москва: РОССПЭН, 2011. С. 129-142)
Шишкин В.И. За советы без коммунистов (Новосибирск: Сибирский хронограф, 2000)
Шишкин В.И. Сибирская Вандея. Том Второй. 1920-1921 (Москва: Международный фонд “Демократия”, 2001)
Цысь, В.В. Западно-Сибирское крестьянское восстание 1921 г. на Тобольском Севере: проблемы взаимодействия власти и общества в условиях политического кризиса (Нижневартовск: НВГУ, 2018)
Smele, Jonathan Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926 (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015)
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After taking control of Mandate Palestine, Great Britain saw itself confronted with mounting Arab and Jewish tensions. Zionist settlers had been moving to the region since the 1890s and after the Balfour Declaration in 1917, the Zionist movement accelerated.
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Bickerton, Ian & Klausner, Carla L. A History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, (Upper Saddle River, N.J. : Prentice Hall, 2007)
Cohen, Hillel, “Zionism as a blessing to the Arabs”, in Cohen, Michael J (ed.), The British Mandate in Palestine: A Centenary Volume, 1920–2020, (London : Routledge 2020)
Halamish, Aviva, “Jewish Immigration” in Cohen, Michael J (ed.), The British Mandate in Palestine: A Centenary Volume, 1920–2020, (London : Routledge 2020)
Jabotinsky, Ze’ev, “The Iron Wall” (1923) http://en.jabotinsky.org/media/9747/the-iron-wall.pdf
Karsh, Efraim, Palestine Betrayed, (New Haven : Yale University Press, 2010)
Kessler, Oren, “1921 Jaffa riots 100 years on: Mandatory Palestine’s 1st ‘mass casualty’ attack” The Times of Israel, (May 2021) timesofisrael.com/1921-jaffa-riots-100-years-on-mandatory-palestines-1st-mass-casualty-event
Khalidi, Rashid, “The Balfour Declaration from the Perspective of the Palestinian People”, United Nations, (November 2017) un.org/unispal/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Lecture-by-Prof.-Rashid-Khalidi-100-years-since-Balfour-Decl-UN-2Nov2017.pdf
Khalidi, Rashid, The Hundred Years' War on Palestine: a History of Settler Colonialism and Resistance, 1917-2017, (New York : Metropolitan Books, 2020)
Regan, Bernard, The Balfour Declaration: Empire, Mandate and Resistance in Palestine, (London : Verso, 2017)
Safty, Adel, Might over Right: How the Zionists Took Over Palestine, (Reading : Garnet Publishing, 2009)
Schindler, Colin, “The origins of militant Zionism during the British Mandate” in Cohen, Michael J (ed.), The British Mandate in Palestine: A Centenary Volume, 1920–2020, (London : Routledge 2020)
Schneer, Jonathan, The Balfour Declaration: The Origins of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, (New York : Random House, 2013)
Segev, Tom, One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs under the British mandate, (London : Abacus, 2014)
Stein, Kenneth W. “Zionist land acquisition” in Cohen, Michael J (ed.), The British Mandate in Palestine: A Centenary Volume, 1920–2020, (London : Routledge 2020)
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The Greek Army was desperately trying to continue their offensive into Turkey among waning Allied support, Eleftherios Venizelos losing the Greek election and a monkey bite killing young Greek King Alexander of Greece. With their backs to the wall, the Turkish Army under Mustafa Kemal was able to turn the tide at the Battle of Sakarya.
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» SOURCES
Primary Sources
- Danglis, Panagiotis: Memoirs, ii.
- Edib, Halide: The Turkish Ordeal. Being the further memoirs of Halide Edib.
- Gazi M. Kemal, Nutuk-Söylev, Cilt II: 1920–1927, Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi
- Gehri, Maurice: « Mission d'enquête en Anatolie (12-22 mai 1921) », Revue internationale de la Croix rouge, tome LII, no 227, 15 juillet 1921, p. 721-735.
- Toynbee, Arnold: The Western Question in Greece and Turkey. A Study in the Contact of Civilizations, Boston 1922.
Secondary Sources
- Erickson, Edward J.: The Turkish War of Independence. A Military History, 1919-1923, Santa Barbara 2021.
- Gedeon, Paschalidou, and Dima-Dimitrou: A Concise History of the Campaign in Asia Minor.
- Glasneck, Johannes: Kemal Atatürk und die moderne Türkei, Freiburg im Breisgau 2010.
- Llewelyn-Smith, Michael: Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919-1922, 1973.
- Shaw, Bernard: From Empire to Republic, vol. 2, part 1, 1977.
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In the aftermath of the American economic downturn after the First World War in certain industries, the labor movement escalated into strikes across the country. This was also true in West Virginia where unions and coal mine owners had already clashed before the war. With the Matewan Massacre and the Battle for Blair Mountain this struggle reached a violent climax in which WW1 veterans were going against hired security - and even the federal army had to be called in.
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Dubofsky, Melvyn & McCartin, Joseph A. Labor in America: A History, (Chichester : John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2017)
Corbin, David, Gun Thugs, Rednecks, and Radicals: a Documentary History of the West Virginia Mine Wars, (Oakland, CA : PM Press, 2011)
Fagge, Roger, “"Citizens of this Great Republic": Politics and the West Virginia Miners, 1900-1922”, International Review of Social History, Vol. 40, No. 1 (1995)
Hutton, T.R.C. “The Appalachian “Gunmen of Capitalism” in Hild, Matthew & Merrit, Keri Leigh (eds.), Reconsidering Southern Labor History: Race, Class, and Power, (Gainesville, FL : University Press of Florida, 2018)
Laurie, Clayton D, “The United States Army and the Return to Normalcy in Labor Dispute Interventions: The Case of the West Virginia Coal Mine Wars, 1920-1921”, West Virginia History, Volume 50, (1991) http://www.wvculture.org/history/journal_wvh/wvh50-1.html
Nida, Brandon, “Demystifying the Hidden Hand: Capital and the State at Blair Mountain”, Historical Archaeology, Vol. 47, No. 3 (2013)
Shogan, Robert, The Battle of Blair Mountain: the Story of America's Largest Labor Uprising, (New York : Basic Books, 2006)
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Presented by: Jesse Alexander
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Adolf Hitler and the small Nazi party are on the rise thanks to Hitler's public speaking talent. But not everyone in the party is in line with his vision for the future. In the end Hitler prevails and becomes Führer of the NSDAP. At the same time the SA is founded and Matthias Erzberger is assassinated by Organisation Consul.
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» SOURCES
Bruppacher, Paul: Adolf Hitler und die Geschichte der NSDAP. Teil 1: 1889 bis 1937. 2009.
Fest, Joachim: Hitler. Eine Biographie. 1973.
Ullrich, Volker: Adolf Hitler. Band 1: Die Jahre des Aufstiegs 1889-1939. 2013.
Weber, Thomas: Becoming Hitler. The making of a Nazi. 2017.
Hitler, Adolf. Speech of April 12, 1921
https://history.hanover.edu/courses/excerpts/111hit1.html
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The once global Spanish Empire was a distant memory in 1921 and in one of the last Spanish colonies trouble was brewing. The Berbers in the Rif mountains under Abd El-Krim were vying for control and so the Spanish Army started a fateful expedition that would end in one of the biggest colonial defeats in history: The battle at Annual.
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Balfour, Sebastian & La Porte, Pablo, “Spanish Military Cultures and the Moroccan Wars, 1909–36”, European History Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 3, (2000)
Chandler, James M. “Spain and Her Moroccan Protectorate 1898 - 1927”, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 10, No. 2, (1975)
Maddy-Weitzman, Bruce, “Abdelkrim: Whose Hero is He? The Politics of Contested Memory in Today's Morocco”, The Brown Journal of World Affairs, Vol. 18, No. 2, (2012)
Pack, Sasha D, The Deepest Border : The Strait of Gibraltar and the Making of the Modern Hispano-African Borderland, (Stanford, CA : Stanford University Press, 2019)
Pennell, C R, A Country with a Government and a Flag: the Rif War in Morocco, 1921-1926, (Wisbech : Middle East and North African Studies Press Ltd, 1986)
Pennell, C R, “Ideology and Practical Politics: A Case Study of the Rif War in Morocco, 1921-1926”, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 14, No. 1, (1982)
Peyron, Michael, The Berbers of Morocco: A History of Resistance, (London : Bloomsbury, 2020)
Woolman, David S. Rebels in the Rif : Abd el Krim and the Rif Rebellion, (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1969)
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The cost - in men, materiel and GDP - for the First World War was immense for Great Britain. And the returning soldiers wanted their share after being sent to die for their country. This explosive situation led to a series of Labour led strikes between 1919 and 1921 and changed the political and economic landscape of Great Britain.
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» SOURCES
Barclay, Gordon, “‘Duties in Aid of the Civil Power’: The Deployment of the Army to Glasgow, 31 January to 17 February 1919”, Journal of Scottish Historical Studies, 38(2) (2018)
Church, Roy A & Outram, Quentin, Strikes and Solidarity: Coalfield Conflict in Britain 1889-1966, (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2002)
Church, Roy A, Outram, Quentin & Smith, David N, “The Militancy of British Miners, 1893-1986: Interdisciplinary Problems and Perspectives”, The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (1991)
Court, W. H. B, “Problems of the British Coal Industry between the Wars” The Economic History Review, Vol. 15, No. 1/2 (1945)
Crafts, Nicolas, “Walking wounded: The British economy in the aftermath of World War I”, Vox EU CEPR, (27 August 2014), voxeu.org/article/walking-wounded-british-economy-aftermath-world-war-i
Davis, Jonathan, “Russia’s war and revolutions as seen by Morgan Phillips Price and Arthur Henderson” in Bland, Lucy and Carr, Richard (eds.) Labour, British radicalism and the First World War, (Manchester : Manchester University Press, 2018)
Davis, Jonathan, “‘A new star rises over Europe’: what British Labour thought about the Russian Revolution”, The Conversation UK, (6 November 2017) theconversation.com/a-new-star-rises-over-europe-what-british-labour-thought-about-the-russian-revolution-86352
Fowler, Simon & Weinbren, Daniel, Now the War Is Over: Britain, 1919–1920, (Barnsley : Pen and Sword Military, 2018)
Hatton, Timothy J & Mark Thomas, “Labour Markets in Recession and Recovery: The UK and the USA in 1920s and 1930s”, Centre for Economic History, The Australian National University Discussion Paper Series, Discussion Paper No. 2012-1 (2012)
Macintyre, Stuart, Little Moscows: Communism and Working-class Militancy in Inter-War Britain, (London : Croom Helm, 1980)
Morris, Marcus, “Peace, but not at any price: British socialists’ calls for peace on the eve of the First World War” in Bland, Lucy and Carr, Richard (eds.) Labour, British radicalism and the First World War, (Manchester : Manchester University Press, 2018)
Mowat, Charles Loch, Britain Between the Wars: 1918-1940, (London : Methuen & Co. Ltd, 1955)
Riddell, George Lord Riddell’s Intimate Diary of the Peace Conference and After: 1918-1923, (London : Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1933)
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A dramatic reenactment of our experiences pitching our projects to TV networks. Precisely why we rely on your direct support.
US involvement in Central America dated back to the first attempt to build the Panama Canal. And in accordance to the Monroe Doctrine was expanded in the 20th century too. US Marines took part in expeditions in Guatemala, Nicaragua and US naval power was a factor in many disputes like the Coto War between Costa Rica and Panama. With the rise of the United Fruit Company, the US domestic market also influenced decisions in the region.
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» SOURCES
Butler, Smedley, War is a Racket: The Antiwar Classic by America's Most Decorated Soldier, (Los Angeles, CA : Feral House, 2003)
Chapman, Peter, Bananas: How the United Fruit Company Shaped the World, (Edinburgh : Canongate, 2007)
Colby, Elbridge, “The United States and the Coto Dispute between Panama and Costa Rica”, The Journal of International Relations, Vol. 12, No. 3 (Jan., 1922)
De La Pedraja Tomán, René, Wars of Latin America, 1899-1941, (Jefferson, N.C. : McFarland & Co., 2006)
Gilderhus, Mark T, The Second Century: U.S.- Latin American Relations Since 1889, (Wilmington, Delaware : Scholarly Resources Inc, 2000)
Harrison, Benjamin, “The United States and the 1909 Nicaragua Revolution”, Caribbean Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 3/4 (September-December 1995)
Langley, Lester D, The Banana Wars: United States Intervention in the Caribbean, 1898-1934, (Wilmington, Delaware : Scholarly Resources Inc, 2002)
Leonard, Thomas M. “Search for Security: The United States and Central America in the Twentieth Century”, The Americas, Vol. 47, No. 4 (Apr., 1991)
Moberg, Mark & Striffler, Steve (eds.), Banana Wars: Power, Production and History in the Americas, (Durham, NC : Duke University Press, 2003)
Mobley, Scott, ““By the Force of Our Arms” William D. Leahy and the U.S. Intervention in Nicaragua, 1912”, Federal History, (2019)
Panama Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Controversia de Limites Entre Panama y Costa Rica, Tomo II, (Panama : Imprenta Nacional, 1921)
Schoultz, Lars, Beneath the United States: A History of U.S. Policy toward Latin America, (Cambridge, MA : Harvard University, 2003)
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France was probably the Allied country hit hardest by the First World War both in economic terms and by the casualties suffered. To rebuild the country (and to prevent Germany from future aggression), their goal was clear: Germany would need to pay for the war in form of reparations. At the same time, France was involved in major international turmoil.
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Buat, Edmond. Général Edmont Buat, Journal 1914-1923 (Perrin, 2015)
Héran, François. Génération sacrifiée : le bilan démographique de la Grande Guerre, (Populations et sociétés 2014 (n°510)
Leonhard, Joern. Der Ueberforderte Friden. Versailles und die Welt 1918-1923.
Marks, Sally. “Mistakes and Myths: The Allies, Germany, and the Versailles Treaty, 1918–1921,” in The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 85, No. 3 (September 2013), pp. 632-659
Soutou, Georges-Henri. La Grande Illusion, quand la France perdait la paix (Tallandier, 2015)
Newspaper articles from Retronews, Bibliothèque nationale de France https://www.retronews.fr/
Nr 247 Kabinettsitzung vom 6. Mai 1921 https://www.bundesarchiv.de/aktenreichskanzlei/1919-1933/01a/feh/feh1p/kap1_2/kap2_247/para3_1.html )
Rothermund, Dietmar: Post-war Economies , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2018-05-22 encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/post-war_economies
Christophe Bellon. Aristide Briand et l'Europe au Parlement des Années folles. Quand la délibéra-tion prend le pas sur la diplomatie (1919-1932) Dans Parlement[s], Revue d'histoire politique 2007/3 (n° HS 3), pages 41 à 53
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The question of the allegiance of the ethnically mixed region of Silesia had already caused heated diplomatic arguments between Germany, Poland and the Allies after the First World War. After a divisive plebiscite the situation escalated into violence. Neither Germany nor Poland could officially send troops, but German Freikorps and Pro-Polish militias fought it out.
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Boehler, Jochen. Civil War in Central Europe 1918-1921 (OUP, 2018)
Campbell, F. Gregory: The Struggle for Upper Silesia, 1919-1922. In: The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 42, 1970.
Lesniewski, Peter: Britain and Upper Silesia 1919-1922. 2000.
Michalczyk, Andrezej: Celebrating the nation: the case of Upper Silesia after the plebiscite in 1921.
Hitze, Guido: Die oberschlesische Frage im Jahre 1921. In: Die Politische Meinung 12/02.
Hitze, Guido: Oberschlesien als internationaler Streitfall. In: PAN 20/01.
Hoefer, Karl: Oberschlesien in der Aufstandszeit 1918-1921. Erinnerungen und Dokumente, 1938.
Tooley, T. Hunt: German Political Violence and the Border Plebiscite in Upper Silesia, 1919-1921. 2008.
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The first decades of the 20th century were a tumultuous time for China with carrying factions trying to control the vast country. These cliques were led by colorful warlords who even went to war with each other. The Zhili-, Anhui- and Fengtian Cliques are the most well known of this warlord era in Chinese history.
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Dreyer, Edward L. China at War 1901-1949, (New York : Longman Publishing, 1995)
Gray, Jack, Rebellions and Revolutions: China from the 1800s to 2000, (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2002)
Jowett, Philip, Chinese Warlord Armies 1911-30, (Oxford : Osprey Publishing, 2010)
Mackinnon, Stephen R. “The Peiyang Army, Yuan Shih-k`ai, and the Origins of Modern Chinese Warlordism” The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 32, No. 3 (May, 1973)
McCord, Edward A. “Burn, Kill, Rape, and Rob: Military Atrocities, Warlordism, and Anti-Warlordism in Republican China” in Lary, Diana & MacKinnon, Stephen (eds.) Scars of War: The Impact of Warfare on Modern China, (Toronto : UBC Press, 2001)
McCord, Edward A. The Power of the Gun, The Emergence of Modern Chinese Warlordism, (Berkeley : University of California Press)
Mühlhahn, Klaus, Making China Modern: From the Great Qing to Xi Jinping, (Cambridge, MA : The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2019)
"民國時期最狂軍閥,出版過詩集的草莽將軍張宗昌" [Trans: The most insane warlord during the Republic of China, the published poetry collection of the general Zhang Zongchang]. The News Lens, (10 August 2018) thenewslens.com/article/99950
Sheridan, James E. The warlord era: politics and militarism under the Peking government, 1916-28 in Fairbank, John K. & Twitchett, Denis (eds.) The Cambridge History of China: Volume 12, Republican China 1912-1949, Part 1, (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2005)
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Former Austro-Hungarian Emperor Karl lived in exile since the armistice of 1918. But he hadn't given up his claim to the crowns of the dual monarchy. And so in 1921 he tried to claim the Hungarian crown not once, but twice.
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Benes, Eduard. “The Little Entente,” in Foreign Affairs , Sep. 15, 1922, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Sep. 15, 1922), pp. 66-72
Brook-Shepherd, Gordon: Um Krone und Reich. Die Tragödie des letzten Habsburgerkaisers.
Sakmyster, Thomas. Miklos Horthy. Ungarn 1918-1944 (Steinbauer, 2006)
Lehar, Anton: Erinnerungen Gegenrevolution und Restaurationsversuch in Ungarn 1918 - 1921
Takacs, Peter: On Stateform of Hungary between 1920 and 1944:
Applicability of the Term „Monarchy without a King”.
Teleki, Paul: The Evolution of Hungary and its place in European History.
Zeidler, Miklos: Charles IV’s attempted returns to the Hungarian throne.
encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/charles_i_emperor_of_austria
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» SOURCES
Bauduy, Jennifer, “The 1915 U.S. Invasion of Haiti: Examining a Treaty of Occupation” Social Education 79 (2015)
Castor, Suzy & Garafola, Lynn, “The American Occupation of Haiti (1915-34) and the Dominican Republic (1916-24)” The Massachusetts Review, Vol. 15, No. 1/2, Caliban (Winter - Spring, 1974)
Gilderhus, Mark T, The Second Century: U.S.-Latin American Relations Since 1889, (Wilmington, Delaware : Scholarly Resources Inc, 2000)
Johnson, Jeannie L. The Marines, Counterinsurgency, and Strategic Culture: Lessons Learned and Lost in America's Wars, (Washington D.C. : Georgetown University Press, 2018)
Langley, Lester D, The Banana Wars: United States Intervention in the Caribbean, 1898-1934, (Wilmington, Delaware : Scholarly Resources Inc, 2002)
Langley, Lester D, The United States and the Caribbean, 1900-1970, (Athens, Georgia : University of Georgia Press, 1980)
Perez, Louis A., Jr. Intervention, Revolution, and Politics in Cuba, 1913-1921, (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania : University of Pittsburgh Press, 2009)
Posner, Walter H. “American Marines in Haiti, 1915-1922” The Americas, Vol. 20, No. 3 (Jan., 1964)
Schreadley, R. L. Intervention! : the Americans in Haiti, 1915-1934, (Charleston, South Carolina : Evening Post Books, 2017)
Yates, Lawrence A, “The US Military’s Experience in Stability Operations, 1789-2005”, Global War on Terrorism Occasional Paper 15, Title 1, Series 2, (2006)
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In early 1921 the Anglo-Irish War/Irish War of Independence reached its bloody climax. Multiple IRA ambushes led to British soldiers being killed, at the same time the IRA walked on "very thin ice" and overstretched their resources.
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Anonymous. “The Enemy’s Failure”, An tÓglach, Vol. 2, No. 24 (March 1, 1921)
Bell, J Bowyer. “The Secret Army: The IRA” (London: Sphere, 1972)
Dorney, John. “War of Independence: the bloodiest six months”, The Irish Times, (3 June 2020)
Fairbrother, Henry. “The British Army Presence in Dublin” Dublin Historical Record,
Vol. 70, No. 1 (Spring / Summer 2017)
Hopkinson, Michael. “The Irish War of Independence”, (Cork : Gill & Macmillan, 2014)
Lawlor, S. M. “Ireland from Truce to Treaty: War or Peace? July to October 1921” Irish Historical Studies, Vol. 22, No. 85 (Mar., 1980)
O’Donoghue, Florence. “No Other Law” (Dublin : Anvil Books, 1986)
Townshend, Charles. “The Republic: The Fight for Irish Independence 1918-1923”, (London : Penguin Books, 2014)
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The finished documentary will launch this summer.
In early 1921 internal resistance against the Bolsheviks was mounting even among their supporters. The peasants in the cities were struggling from food shortages and some left-wing groups felt that the Bolsheviks had abandoned their ways particularly by not hearing out the Soviet councils. One of the largest acts of resistance was the Kronstadt (Кронштадт) Rebellion by Red Navy sailors in the Gulf of Finland.
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» SOURCES
Наумов В. П., А. А. Косаковский. „Кронштадт 1921. Документы о событиях в Кронштадте весной 1921 г.“ (М.: Международный фонд “Демократия”, 1997)
Пирани, Саймон. „Русская революция в отступлении“ (М.: Новый хронограф, 2013)
Шубин А.В. „Махно и его время: О Великой революции и Гражданской войне 1917-1922“ гг. в России и на Украинe (М.: ЛИБРОКОМ, 2013)
Avrich, Paul. “Kronstadt 1921” ( Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991)
Smele, Jonathan. “The ‘Russian’ Civil Wars 1916-1926” (London: Hurst, 2015).
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Persia's struggle between British and Russian territorial ambition went back to the 19th century. In the new geopolitical landscape after the First World War, Britain was more keen then ever to have control over Persia - and its oil. But the 1921 Persian coup d'état by the Persian Cossack Brigade headed by Reza Khan put a stop to British ambition. For now.
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Abrahamian, Ervand. “The Causes of the Constitutional Revolution in Iran”, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 10, No. 3 (August, 1979)
Avery, Peter; Hambly, Gavin & Melville C P. “The Cambridge history of Iran. Vol. 7, From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic”, (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2008)
Brysac, Shareen Blair. “A Very British Coup: How Reza Shah Won and Lost His Throne”, World Policy Journal, Vol. 24, No. 2 (Summer, 2007)
Cronin, Stephanie. “Popular Protest, Disorder, and Riot in Iran: The Tehran Crowd and the Rise of Riza Khan, 1921–1925” International Review of Social History, Vol. 50, No. 2 (August 2005)
Fromkin, David. “A Peace to End All Peace : Creating the Modern Middle East, 1914-1922", (London : Penguin, 1991)
Hairi, Abdul-Hadi. “Why Did the ʿUlamā Participate in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909?” Die Welt des Islams, New Series, Vol. 17, Issue 1/4 (1976 – 1977)
Reza Ghods, M. “Iranian Nationalism and Reza Shah” Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Jan, 1991)
Jacobs, Matthew F. “World War I: A War (and Peace?) for the Middle East” Diplomatic History,
Vol. 38, No. 4 (September 2014)
Zirinsky, Michael P. “Imperial Power and Dictatorship: Britain and the Rise of Reza Shah, 1921-1926” International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 24, No. 4 (November, 1992)
N. S. Fatemi. “ANGLO-PERSIAN AGREEMENT OF 1919,” Encyclopædia Iranica, II/1, pp. 59-61, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/anglo-persian-agreement-1919 .
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Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was no stranger to anti-colonial activism when he returned to India during the First World War. After the great sacrifices of Britain's colony, the demand for autonomy was growing in India. And Ghandi would be front and center of this new movement with his idea of non-cooperation and peaceful resistance.
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Chandra, Bipan; Mukherjee, Mridula; Mukherjee, Aditya; Mahajan, Sucheta; Panikkar, K. N:” India’s Struggle for Independence, 1857-1947”, (Delhi : Penguin Books, 2003)
Darwin, John. “Britain, Egypt and the Middle East: Imperial policy in the aftermath of war 1918-1922” (London : Macmillan Press Ltd, 1981)
Judd, Denis. “The Lion and the Tiger: The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600-1947” (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2010)
Mukherjee, Rudrangshu. “‘Gandhi’s Swaraj’ Economic and Political Weekly” Vol. 44, No. 50 (Dec, 2009)
Rajan, Vithal. “‘The Natives Continue to be Restless’ Economic and Political Weekly”
Vol. 44, No. 2 (Jan, 2009)
Sayer, Derek. “British Reaction to the Amritsar Massacre 1919-1920” Past & Present,
No. 131 (May, 1991)
Tharoor, Shashi. “Inglorious Empire: What the British Did to India” (London : Penguin Books, 2017)
Tinker, Hugh. “‘India in the First World War and after’ Journal of Contemporary History”
Vol. 3, No. 4, 1918-19: From War to Peace” (Oct., 1968)
Wagner, Kim A. “‘Calculated to Strike Terror’: The Amritsar Massacre and the Spectacle of Colonial Violence”, Past & Present, Volume 233, Issue 1, November 2016
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16 Days in Berlin is the most detailed documentary about the Battle of Berlin. Follow the battle day by day with our groundbreaking series.
Research for this monumental documentary was completed by Jesse Alexander, host of The Great War YouTube Channel and by researchers from 8 different countries using sources in 5 languages. Filmed at original locations of the Battle in and around Berlin.
The documentary features detailed maps and animations and authentic footage from the Battle of Berlin filmed by Soviet cameramen during the fighting. It also features never before seen photos and documents of people who fought in the battle on both sides.
18 episodes
Total runtime: 4.5 hours
Language: English
Available with English subtitles
Verfügbar mit deutschsprachigen Untertiteln
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The Somali Dervish movement was a thorn in the British colonial side for 20 years starting at the beginning of the 20th century. The leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan was able to resist military expeditions and establish his own proto-state in the region.
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» SOURCES
Berhe, Simona. “Colonies (Italy) (Version 1.1)” in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2020-11-17.
Bosworth, Richard and Giuseppe Finaldi. “The Italian Empire,” in Empires at War 1911-1923, Robert Gerwarth and Ertez Manela, eds. (OUP, 2014): 34-52.
Chester Courant and Advertiser for North Wales. “Somalia Battle.” January 20, 1904.
Hess, Robert L. “The 'Mad Mullah' and Northern Somalia,” in The Journal of African History,
Vol. 5, No. 3 (1964): 415-433.
Jardine, Douglas. “The Mad Mullah of Somaliland” (London: Herbert Jenkins, 1923).
Sheikh-Abdi, Abdi. “Divine Madness: Mohammed Abdulle Hassan, 1856–1920” (London: Zed Books, 1992).
Zollmann, Jakob. „Ethiopia“ in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2020-08-26
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Presented by: Jesse Alexander
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