Name: 15 Years of GRACE Earth Observations @NASAJPL
Uploaded: 2024-10-22T08:17:00-05:00
Duration: 8 min 17 s
Description: 15 Years of GRACE Earth Observations

15 Years of GRACE Earth Observations

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2024-10-22 | 15 Years of GRACE Earth Observations

Mission Makers: Cedric David, Scientist on the SWOT Water-Tracking Mission

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-11-22 | Cedric David is part of the science team behind the international Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) satellite, a mission led by NASA and the French space agency Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES). SWOT will make the first global survey of nearly all the water on Earth’s surface.

Born in France, David is now a researcher at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. Water was the one place where David felt comfortable growing up, and now he studies the world’s rivers. In a visit to Castaic Lake in California, David describes what drives him: the preciousness of water as a resource for everyone around the world.

The SWOT mission is a collaboration between NASA and CNES, with contributions from the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and the UK Space Agency. SWOT is expected to launch in December 2022.

For more information about SWOT, go to: swot.jpl.nasa.gov

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Mission Makers: Christine Gebara, Engineer on the SWOT Water-Tracking Mission

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-11-22 | Christine Gebara is part of the team building the international Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) satellite, a mission led by NASA and the French space agency Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES). SWOT will make the first global survey of nearly all the water on Earth’s surface.

Gebara, an integration and test engineer at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, fell in love with engineering while learning to sail near her childhood home in Houston. She loves the water and is excited about SWOT’s ability to help us better track its movement through lakes, reservoirs, rivers, and the ocean.

The SWOT mission is a collaboration between NASA and the CNES, with contributions from the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and the UK Space Agency. SWOT is expected to launch in December 2022.

For more information about SWOT, go to: swot.jpl.nasa.gov

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Mission Makers: Marc Simard, Scientist on the SWOT Water-Tracking Mission

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-11-22 | Marc Simard is part of the science team behind the international Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) mission, led by NASA and the French space agency Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES). SWOT will make the first global survey of nearly all the water on Earth’s surface.

Simard, a researcher at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, developed a passion for the environment during his early school years in Quebec, Canada, and now focuses his scientific work on estuaries and wetlands. He believes SWOT will provide critical data on the Mississippi River delta and deltas around the world, helping us understand how deltas are affected by sea level rise and climate change.

The SWOT mission is a collaboration between NASA and CNES, with contributions from the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and the UK Space Agency. SWOT is expected to launch in December 2022.

For more information about SWOT, go to: swot.jpl.nasa.gov

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Mission Makers: Tahani Amer, NASA Program Executive for the SWOT Water-Tracking Mission

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-11-22 | Tahani Amer oversees several Earth science missions for NASA, including the international Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) satellite, a mission led by NASA and the French space agency Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES). SWOT ]will make the first global survey of nearly all the water on Earth’s surface.

Amer grew up in Egypt and was inspired by her father, who worked on dams on the Nile River and supported her career in science. She earned multiple degrees in the U.S. and went to work at NASA's Langley Research Center, eventually rising to become a program executive at the agency’s headquarters in Washington.

The SWOT mission is a collaboration between NASA and CNES, with contributions from the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and the UK Space Agency. SWOT is expected to launch in December 2022.

For more information about SWOT, go to: swot.jpl.nasa.gov

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Mission Makers: The People Behind the SWOT Water-Tracking Mission (Teaser Trailer)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-11-22 | Meet some of the scientists and engineers contributing to a new Earth science mission, led by NASA and the French space agency Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES). The Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) satellite will make the first global survey of nearly all water on Earth’s surface and address some of the most pressing climate change questions of our time.

In this video series, you will be introduced to four team members on the SWOT mission: hydrologist Cedric David, estuary and wetland scientist Marc Simard, integration and test engineer Christine Gebara, and NASA program executive Tahani Amer.

The SWOT mission is a collaboration between NASA and CNES, with contributions from the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and the UK Space Agency. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of Caltech in Pasadena, California, manages the mission for NASA.

SWOT is expected to launch in December 2022.

For more information about the international SWOT mission go to: swot.jpl.nasa.gov

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Dust and Drama in the Orion Nebula from NASA and ESA Images

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-11-22 | Enjoy a moment of Zen with this fly-through of the Orion Nebula, based on images captured by NASA and ESA (European Space Agency) telescopes The image shows infrared light, or wavelengths that the human eye cannot see. Stars radiate little or no light in these wavelengths, so the image shows only dust.

The blue light indicates warm dust, heated by radiation from large, bright stars that can release up to one million times more light than our Sun. All that radiation breaks apart dust grains and carves out cavities, like the two blue “bubbles” in the image. Much of the remaining dust is then swept away by winds from the stars or when the stars die explosive deaths as supernovae.

Around the edge of the two cavernous regions, the dust that appears green is slightly cooler. Red indicates cold dust that reaches temperatures of about minus 440 Fahrenheit (minus 260 Celsius). A cold ribbon of dust starts near the bottom right of the image and threads throughout the nebula. Red and orange filaments like these are where dust condenses and forms new stars. Over time, these filaments may produce new giant stars that will once again reshape the region.

These images were captured by the now-retired Herschel Space Telescope, an ESA observatory, NASA’s retired Spitzer Space Telescope, and NASA’s Wide-Field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), which now operates under the moniker NEOWISE. Spitzer and WISE were both managed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of Caltech, in Southern California.

For more information about NASA’s Spitzer mission, go to:
https://www.ipac.caltech.edu/project/spitzer

For more information about WISE, go to:
nasa.gov/mission_pages/WISE/main/index.html

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Mars Sample Return: Bringing Mars Rock Samples Back to Earth

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-11-17 | NASA and the European Space Agency are developing plans for one of the most ambitious campaigns ever attempted in space: bringing the first samples of Mars material safely back to Earth for detailed study. The diverse set of scientifically curated samples now being collected by NASA’s Mars Perseverance rover could help scientists answer the question of whether ancient life ever arose on the Red Planet.

Bringing samples of Mars to Earth for future study would happen in several steps with multiple spacecraft, and in some ways, in a synchronized manner. This short animation features key moments of the Mars Sample Return campaign: from landing on Mars and securing the sample tubes to launching them off the surface and ferrying them back to Earth.

Animation is contributed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the European Space Agency, Goddard Space Flight Center, and Marshall Space Flight Center.

Learn more: mars.nasa.gov/msr

Credit: NASA/ESA/JPL-Caltech/GSFC/MSFC

See the Spacecraft: Earth-Observing Satellite SWOT Nears Launch (Live Q+A)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-11-17 | A new Earth science mission led by NASA and the French space agency Centre National d’Études Spatiales is preparing for launch! In less than a month, the SWOT satellite – which stands for Surface Water and Ocean Topography – will launch from Vandenberg Space Force Base in central California.

The U.S.-European mission will help communities plan for a better future by:
Surveying nearly all of the water on Earth’s surface for the first time.
Helping researchers understand where the water is, where it’s coming from, and where it’s going.
Improving understanding of the ocean’s role in climate change.
Providing essential information to water management agencies, civil engineers, universities, disaster preparedness agencies, and others who need to track water in their local areas.

Tune in as we visit Vandenberg Space Force Base to see the SWOT satellite up close and take live questions with experts behind the mission.

The mission is a collaboration between NASA and the French space agency Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES), with contributions from the Canadian Space Agency and UK Space Agency. JPL, which is managed for NASA by Caltech in Pasadena, California, leads the U.S. component of the project.

SWOT is expected to launch in December 2022.

For more information on the SWOT mission, visit swot.jpl.nasa.gov or follow #TrackingWorldWater on social media.

Ready for Launch: SWOT Satellite Will Track Earth’s Water (Live Briefing)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-11-14 | The Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) mission, led by NASA and the French space agency Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES), will be the first to observe nearly all water on Earth’s surface, measuring the height of water in lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and the ocean. It’s currently undergoing final preparations for its expected Dec. 12, 2022, launch from Vandenberg Space Force Base in central California.

Tune in as we go live from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory to hear from experts behind the mission. Panel members include:

Tahani Amer, program executive, Earth Science Division, NASA Headquarters
Parag Vaze, SWOT project manager, JPL
Lee-Lueng Fu, SWOT project scientist, JPL
Ben Hamlington, research scientist, Sea Level and Ice Group, JPL
Thierry Lafon, SWOT program manager, CNES

For more information on the SWOT mission, visit swot.jpl.nasa.gov or follow #TrackingWorldWater on social media.

SWOT is a collaboration between NASA and CNES, with contributions from the Canadian Space Agency and the UK Space Agency.

What’s in a Name? How We Find, Name, and Investigate Exoplanets (Live Public Talk)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-11-11 | We live in a golden age of discovery with more than 5,000 confirmed exoplanets. But how do we find these worlds, and what challenges do we face in the search for more? In this talk with Dr. Marie Ygouf, we'll take a look at the discovery process and what lies ahead for exoplanet exploration.

Speaker:
Dr. Marie Ygouf, Technologist, NASA JPL, member of the Roman Coronagraph Project Science and James Webb Space Telescope NIRCam science teams

Host:
Brian White, public services office, NASA JPL

Co-host:
Dr. Nora Bailey, public engagement specialist, NASA JPL

Whats Up: November 2022 Skywatching Tips from NASA

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-11-02 | What are some skywatching highlights in November 2022?

A total lunar eclipse brings some magic to the morning sky on November 8th, and the Leonid meteors peak after midnight on November 18th, with some glare from a 35% full moon. In addition, enjoy pretty views on other days in November when the Moon visits planets Mars and Saturn, and bright star Spica.

0:00 Intro
0:10 Total lunar eclipse
1:25 Moon & planet highlights
2:16 Leonid meteor shower
3:15 Nov ember Moon phases

Additional information about topics covered in this episode of What's Up, along with still images from the video, and the video transcript, are available at solarsystem.nasa.gov/skywatching/home.

SWOT: Earth Science Satellite Will Help Communities Plan for a Better Future

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-10-27 | A new Earth science mission, led by NASA and the French space agency Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES), will help communities plan for a better future by surveying the planet’s salt and freshwater bodies. The Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) mission will measure the height of water in lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and the oceans.

As climate change accelerates the water cycle, more communities around the world will be inundated with water while others won’t have enough. SWOT data will be used to improve flood forecasts and monitor drought conditions, providing essential information to water management agencies, civil engineers, universities, the U.S. Department of Defense, disaster preparedness agencies, and others who need to track water in their local areas. In this video, examples of how SWOT data will be used in these communities are shared by a National Weather Service representative in Oregon, an Alaska Department of Transportation engineer, researchers from the University of Oregon and University of North Carolina, a NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory scientist working with the Department of Defense, and a JPL scientist working with the Louisiana Coastal Protection and Restoration Agency.

:30 - Flood Watches & Warnings - Portland, Oregon
1:08 - Water Management - Fern Ridge Lake, Oregon
2:05 - Protecting Infrastructure - Alaska
2:54 - National Security - Department of Defense
3:24 - Coastal Protection - Mississippi River Delta

SWOT is expected to launch from Vandenberg Space Force Base in California in December 2022.

The mission is a collaboration between NASA and CNES, with contributions from the Canadian Space Agency and UK Space Agency. JPL, which is managed for NASA by Caltech in Pasadena, California, leads the U.S. component of the project.

To learn more about the mission, visit: swot.jpl.nasa.gov

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/CNES/Thales Alenia Space

JPL and the Space Age: The American Rocketeer

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-10-26 | NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory is widely known for its trailblazing role in space exploration, and the “JPL and the Space Age” documentary series invites viewers to relive those early adventures through rare archival footage and interviews with many of JPL’s pioneering engineers and scientists.

“The American Rocketeer” is the story of the origins of JPL, the world’s premier center for the exploration of the solar system and beyond. It’s also the story of one man’s reach for the stars.

The central figure throughout this episode is Frank Malina, whose fundamental role in the evolution of American rocketry is largely unknown and remains uncelebrated. As an idealistic Caltech graduate student during the midst of the Great Depression, Malina agreed to lead a motley crew of amateur rocket enthusiasts and fellow Caltech students attempting to launch rockets in hopes of one day reaching space. That led to building rockets for the U.S. Army during World War II. Malina helped to win a world war, only to later see his country turn against him and declare him an international fugitive. Through it all, he kept meticulous records, hoping to ensure his pioneering role in American rocketry.

Documentary length: 1 hour 29 minutes

How to Bring Mars Sample Tubes Safely to Earth (Mars News Report)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-10-26 | NASA’s Perseverance Mars rover is filling sample tubes with rocky material on the Red Planet as the agency works on the next steps to get them safely back to Earth.

The Mars Sample Return campaign would bring samples collected by the Perseverance rover to Earth for detailed study. The campaign involves an international interplanetary relay team, including the European Space Agency (ESA). These samples could answer a key question: did life ever exist on Mars?

Aaron Yazzie, who works on the Mars Sample Return campaign, explains the work being done at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory to ensure the safe return of the sample tubes.

For more information on Mars Sample Return, visit mars.nasa.gov/msr

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Methane Super-Emitters Detected by NASAs New Earth Science Mission (Media Telecon)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-10-25 | A NASA instrument installed on the International Space Station this summer has demonstrated an unanticipated capability to help better understand the impacts of climate change.

EMIT, the Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation, was built by scientists to understand how dust affects the climate. The instrument’s primary mission is to map the prevalence of key minerals in our planet’s deserts, but recently, it demonstrated another crucial capability. In this audio teleconference, experts will discuss the latest findings.

Speakers:
Karen St. Germain, Earth Science Division director at NASA Headquarters in Washington
Robert Green, EMIT principal investigator, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), Southern California
Andrew Thorpe, research technologist, JPL
Kirt Costello, chief scientist, NASA’s International Space Station Program

Read more about the findings: go.nasa.gov/3De07R3

For more information about EMIT, visit: earth.jpl.nasa.gov/emit

NASA Tests Ways to Crash Land on Mars

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-10-20 | We’re testing a new way of landing on Mars… by crashing into its surface.

The Simplified High Impact Energy Landing Device (SHIELD) is a lander concept being tested at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). It could one day provide a new way for low-cost missions to land on Mars.

Rather than rely on parachutes or retrorockets, SHIELD would include a collapsible, accordion-like base to absorb the energy of a landing. A full-size prototype of the base was tested on Aug. 12, 2022. The prototype was hurled at the ground from the top of a nearly 90-foot-tall (27-meter-tall) drop tower at JPL. A steel plate ensured the impact was even harder than what would be experienced on Mars.

The design worked: After crushing against the steel plate at 110 mph (177 kph), several electronic components inside the SHIELD prototype, including a smartphone, survived the impact.

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/California Academy of Sciences

NEOWISE: Revealing Changes in the Universe

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-10-18 | New time-lapse movies from NASA’s NEOWISE mission give astronomers the opportunity to see objects, like stars and black holes, as they move and change over time. The videos include previously hidden brown dwarfs, a feeding black hole, a dying star, a star-forming region, and a brightening star. They combine more than 10 years of NEOWISE observations and 18 all-sky images, enabling a long-term analysis and a deeper understanding of the universe.

0:44 – NEOWISE all-sky scan animation
1:03 – Feeding black hole
1:14 – Pulsing star reaches the end of its life
1:21 – Protostars in star-forming region
1:34 – Brown dwarf moves across the sky
2:00 – Unexplained stellar brightening

The NEOWISE mission uses a space telescope to hunt for asteroids and comets, including those that could pose a threat to Earth. Launched in December 2009 as the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Explorer, or WISE, the space telescope was originally designed to survey the sky in infrared, detecting asteroids, stars and some of the faintest galaxies in space. WISE did so successfully until completing its primary mission in February 2011.

Observations resumed in December 2013, when the telescope was taken out of hibernation and re-purposed for the NEOWISE project as an instrument to study near-Earth objects, or NEOs, as well as more distant asteroids and comets.

For more information on the NEOWISE mission go to: jpl.nasa.gov/missions/neowise
For more NEOWISE data go to: https://neowise.ipac.caltech.edu/

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
WISE-NEOWISE movies compiled by Dan Caselden

Near-Earth Objects – Opportunities for Discoveries (Live Public Talk)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-10-14 | Comets and asteroids offer clues to planetary formation. As leftover debris from the formation process, studying the chemical makeup of comets and asteroids can help us understand the material from which the planets formed. In this talk, we’ll discuss how these near-Earth objects (NEOs) are opportunities for discovery.

Speaker:
Dr. Davide Farnocchia, navigation engineer, NASA JPL

Host:
Marc Razze, public services office, NASA JPL

Co-host:
Brian White, public services office, NASA JPL

Original Air Date: Oct. 13, 2022

Cosmic Dust Rings Spotted by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-10-12 | An image from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope reveals a remarkable sight: at least 17 concentric dust rings emanating from a pair of stars located about 5,300 light-years from Earth. Each ring was created when the stars came close together and their colliding stellar winds (streams of gas they blow into space) caused some of the gas to compress into dust.

Collectively known as Wolf-Rayet 140, the stars’ orbits bring them together about once every eight years, so just like the growth rings of a tree trunk, these dusty loops mark the passage of time: The 17 rings reveal more than a century of stellar interactions. And while other Wolf-Rayet stars produce dust, no other pair is known to produce rings quite like Wolf-Rayet 140.

Because the stars’ orbits are elliptical rather than circular, the distance between the stars changes constantly, and dust forms only when they are close. The amount of dust produced by this interaction varies, so the system doesn’t form a perfect bullseye. One of the densest regions of dust production creates the bright feature repeating at 2 o’clock.

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

For more information about the Webb telescope’s mission, visit:
nasa.gov/webb

Whats Up: October 2022 Skywatching Tips from NASA

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-09-30 | What are some skywatching highlights in October 2022?
Enjoy giant planets Jupiter and Saturn all night throughout the month. Then watch as Mars begins its retrograde motion, moving westward each night instead of eastward, for the next few months. Finally, check out the Orionid meteors overnight on Oct. 20.

0:00 Intro
0:11 Evenings with Jupiter & Saturn
0:37 Mars' retrograde motion
2:07 Orionid meteor shower
3:04 October Moon phases

Additional information about topics covered in this episode of What's Up, along with still images from the video, and the video transcript, are available at solarsystem.nasa.gov/skywatching/home.

— Additional Resources —
Skywatching resources from NASA: solarsystem.nasa.gov/skywatching/home
NASA "Watch the Skies" blog: blogs.nasa.gov/Watch_the_Skies
NASA's Night Sky Network: nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov

Europa Clipper: Whats So Cool About Jupiters Icy Moon? (Live Q&A)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-09-28 | NASA's next outer solar system mission, Europa Clipper, will gather detailed measurements of Jupiter’s moon Europa. Scientists think the intriguing moon may contain a salty ocean below a miles-thick ice shell, and the Europa Clipper mission - which is scheduled for launch in 2024 - will investigate whether it could have conditions suitable for life.

Join us Sept 28th at 1:00 pm PT for a live Q&A from JPL's High Bay 1 clean room and see Europa Clipper up close in the early stages of assembly. We'll discuss what we want to learn from Europa and what kind of instruments we will use to explore it with project staff scientist Cynthia Phillips and project system engineer Jennifer Dooley.

✨ For more about the mission, visit: europa.nasa.gov
🚀 To learn more about the spacecraft’s assembly (plus watch a live cam of the clean room), visit: europa.nasa.gov/spacecraft/assembly

JPL and the Space Age: The Breaking Point

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-09-22 | The Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s success in landing the low-cost Mars Pathfinder mission in 1997 was viewed as proof that spacecraft could be built more often and for far less money — a radical cultural change NASA termed “Faster, Better, Cheaper.”

This era also coincided with the discovery of a Mars rock that hinted at the possibility of microbial life elsewhere in the solar system. NASA’s reaction was to envision a steady stream of missions to Mars — all done at cut-rate costs. In fact, the next challenge taken on by JPL was to fly two missions to Mars for the price of the single Pathfinder mission. Mars Climate Orbiter and the Mars Polar Lander both made it to the launch pad, on time and on budget, but were lost upon arrival at Mars, resulting in one of the most difficult periods in the history of JPL.

“The Breaking Point” tells the story of the demise of these two missions and the abrupt end of NASA’s “Faster, Better, Cheaper” era.

Documentary length: 1 hour 47 minutes

Hear Meteoroid Striking Mars, Captured by NASA’s InSight Lander

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-09-19 | NASA’s InSight lander detected seismic waves from a meteoroid and was able to capture the sound of the space rock striking the surface of Mars for the first time. The meteoroid – the term used for incoming space rocks before they hit the ground – entered Mars’ atmosphere on Sept. 5, 2021, exploding into at least three shards that each left craters behind. Mars’ atmosphere is just 1% as dense as Earth’s, allowing far more meteoroids to pass through and impact the Red Planet’s surface.

This event marks the first time seismic and acoustic waves from an impact were detected on the Red Planet. Why does this meteoroid impact sound like a “bloop” in the video? It has to do with a peculiar atmospheric effect that’s also observed in deserts on Earth.

After sunset, the atmosphere retains some heat accumulated during the day. Sound waves travel through this heated atmosphere at different speeds, depending on their frequency. As a result, lower-pitched sounds arrive before high-pitched sounds. An observer close to the impact would hear a “bang,” while someone many miles away would hear the bass sounds first, creating a “bloop.”

NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter flew over the estimated impact site to confirm the location. The orbiter used its black-and-white Context Camera to reveal three darkened spots on the surface.

After locating these spots, the orbiter’s team used the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment camera, or HiRISE, to get a color close-up of the craters. Because HiRISE sees wavelengths the human eye can’t detect, scientists change the camera’s filters to enhance the color of the image. The areas that appear blue around the craters are where dust has been removed or disturbed by the blast of the impact. Martian dust is bright and red, so removing it makes the surface appear relatively dark and blue.

For more information on InSight, visit mars.nasa.gov/insight/.

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Maryland/University of Arizona/CNES/IPGP/Manchu/Bureau 21/ETH Zurich/Kirschner/van Driel

Ocean Worlds Life Surveyor (OWLS) (Live Public Talk)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-09-16 | The Ocean Worlds Life Surveyor (OWLS) is an integrated, portable, and autonomous life-detection instrument suite designed to identify and characterize life on ocean worlds. It's the first to explore a wide range of size scales - from single molecules to microscopic organisms - in a water sample. In this talk, we'll discuss why autonomy is important for this and future missions.

Speaker:
Mark Wronkiewicz, Research Data Scientist, NASA JPL

Host:
Marc Razze, Public Services Office, NASA JPL

Co-Host:
Nikki Wyrick, Public Services Office, NASA JPL

Original Air Date: September 15, 2022

More info on the OWLS project can be found here: jpl.nasa.gov/go/owls

NASAs Perseverance Mars Rover Investigates Geologically Rich Area (News Briefing)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-09-15 | NASA hosted a briefing to provide highlights from the first year-and-a-half of the Perseverance rover’s exploration of Mars.

The rover landed in Mars’ Jezero Crater in February 2021 and is collecting samples of rock and other materials from the Martian surface. Perseverance is investigating the sediment-rich ancient river delta in the Red Planet’s Jezero Crater.

Speakers:
• Lori Glaze, director of NASA’s Planetary Science Division, NASA Headquarters
• Laurie Leshin, JPL director
• Rick Welch, Perseverance deputy project manager, JPL
• Ken Farley, Perseverance project scientist, Caltech
• Sunanda Sharma, Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC) scientist, JPL
• David Shuster, Perseverance returned sample scientist, University of California, Berkeley

mars.nasa.gov

#NASA #Space #Exploration #Planets #Perseverance #Mars #MarsRover #PerseveranceRover #SearchForLife #RedPlanet #JetPropulsionLaboratory #JPL #JezeroCrater #Astrobiology #SolarSystem #MarsSampleReturn

(Original Air Date: Sept. 15, 2022)

Perseverance Explores the Jezero Crater Delta

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-09-14 | NASA’s Perseverance Mars Rover has arrived at an ancient delta in Jezero Crater, one of the best places on the Red Planet to search for potential signs of ancient life. The delta is an area where scientists surmise that a river once flowed billions of years ago into a lake and deposited sediments in a fan shape.

Rachel Kronyak, a member of the Perseverance science operations team, guides the viewer through this Martian panorama and its intriguing sedimentary rocks. It’s the most detailed view ever returned from the Martian surface, consisting of 2.5 billion pixels and generated from 1,118 individual Mastcam-Z images. Those images were acquired on June 12, 13, 16, 17, and 20, 2022 (the 466th, 467th, 470th, 471st, and 474th Martian day, or sol, of Perseverance’s mission).

In this panorama, an area called Hogwallow Flats is visible, as is Skinner Ridge, where two rock core samples were taken.

The color enhancement in this image improves the visual contrast and accentuates color differences. This makes it easier for the science team to use their everyday experience to interpret the landscape.

For more information on the Perseverance rover, visit mars.nasa.gov/perseverance.

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS

Live From the Clean Room - Building Europa Clipper

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-09-08 | Watch live as NASA's next outer solar system mission, Europa Clipper, is built and tested in the Spacecraft Assembly Facility at the agency's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California. NASA's Europa Clipper mission will perform dozens of close flybys of Jupiter’s moon Europa, gathering detailed measurements to investigate whether the moon could have conditions suitable for life.

You are viewing activities in High Bay 1 at JPL. The large aluminum cylinder visible on the left is Europa Clipper’s main body. Standing 10 feet (3 meters) tall and 5 feet (1.5 meters) wide, the main body is integrated with electronics, radios, thermal loop tubing, cabling, and the spacecraft’s propulsion system. The aluminum box visible on the right, which is currently lifted with a panel open that reveals electronics inside, is Europa Clipper’s electronics vault. Space near Jupiter is a dangerous mix of different types of radiation, and the vault will shield electronics to reduce the impact of radiation. Additional Europa Clipper assembly operations are taking place in clean rooms at JPL and at partner institutions across the United States.

Live moderated chats will take place on this channel every Tuesday from 10:00-10:30 am PT. If you don't see the chat at those times, try refreshing your browser.

For more about the mission, visit europa.nasa.gov
To learn more about the spacecraft’s assembly, visit europa.nasa.gov/spacecraft/assembly

All chats are moderated. Inappropriate language or posts that harass other individuals will be removed.
- Use respectful language
- Protect your private information
- No spam, sexually explicit or discriminatory material
- Stay on topic

Whats Up: September 2022 Skywatching Tips from NASA

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-09-01 | What are some skywatching highlights in September 2022?

Mars is on the move this month, forming a "red triangle" with bright red stars Aldebaran and Betelgeuse. Saturn and Jupiter fly with the Moon on the 9th, and then the Moon slides over closer Jupiter in the morning sky on the 11th. At the end of the month, September 23rd brings the equinox, meaning day and night are of nearly equal length, and a change of seasons is afoot.

0:00 Intro
0:12 Mars on the move in September
0:43 Jupiter at opposition
1:39 Evening planets: Jupiter and Saturn
2:07 September equinox
2:55 September Moon phases

Additional information about topics covered in this episode of What's Up, along with still images from the video, and the video transcript, are available at solarsystem.nasa.gov/skywatching/home.

Voyager at 45: NASA’s Longest and Farthest Explorers (Live Q&A)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-08-30 | Launched in 1977, the twin Voyager probes are NASA’s longest-operating mission and the only spacecraft ever to explore interstellar space. For two decades after launch, the spacecraft were planetary explorers, giving us up-close views of the gas giants Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Now, as they reach distances far beyond the hopes of their original designers, the aging spacecraft challenge their team in new ways, requiring creative solutions to keep them operating and sending back science data from the space between the stars.

As we celebrate the 45th anniversary of these epic explorers, join Voyager deputy project scientist Linda Spilker and propulsion engineer Todd Barber for a live Q&A.

JPL and the Space Age: The Footsteps of Voyager

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-08-25 | While the legendary Voyager 2 was in the midst of its triumphant Grand Tour through the outer planets, the space shuttle era was underway on Earth. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory would be among the first to demonstrate how NASA’s new shuttle could be used to conduct science experiments about our own planet from the vantage of space. But for launching missions to targets beyond Earth orbit, the shuttle posed engineering challenges. One mission that launched from the shuttle was Galileo, JPL’s flagship mission to Jupiter, and its route to the launch pad would be full of unexpected twists and turns.

Drawing on rare film footage as well as the memories of the engineers and scientists who were there, “The Footsteps of Voyager” recounts the dramatic experiences of these first-ever encounters at Uranus and Neptune and the efforts to deploy Galileo, a mission that would become the first to orbit an outer planet.

Documentary length: 56 minutes

JPL and the Space Age: The Stuff of Dreams

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-08-24 | In 1977, the greatest adventure in space exploration began with the launch of the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft, two robotic explorers designed to explore the deep reaches of our solar system.

The Voyagers were the creations of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, where a brash young scientist had just been put in charge. His ambition was to take the next steps in exploring the solar system. Instead, he found himself struggling for JPL’s very survival in the midst of financial cutbacks at the very same time of the Voyagers' triumphs of discoveries at Jupiter and Saturn.

“The Stuff of Dreams” tells the story of the Voyagers’ astounding successes and unexpected discoveries – but most of all, it’s a tale of perseverance by people and machines struggling against forces put in their way.

Documentary length: 1 hour 27 minutes

Voyager – 45 Years in Space (Live Public Talk)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-08-19 | As the twin Voyager spacecraft approach their 45th anniversary, we take a look at where the mission has been, what they’ve taught us, and where they go from here. In this conversation with Suzanne Dodd, Voyager Project Manager, we’ll discuss how Voyager came to be, highlight some of the major discoveries, and hear stories about this mission that has captured the public’s attention for years.

Speaker:
Suzanne Dodd, Voyager Project Manager, NASA JPL

Host:
Brian White, Public Services Office, NASA JPL

Co-Host:
Calla Cofield, Media Relations Specialist, NASA JPL

(Original Air Date: Aug. 18, 2022)

Too Big for the Door: How Engineers Installed a NASA Space Telescope Test Chamber

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-08-16 | NASA’s upcoming SPHEREx space telescope needs a custom-built test chamber to make sure its cutting-edge instruments are ready to operate in space. The telescope will create a 3D map of the entire sky. And even though the telescope’s test chamber didn’t exactly travel cosmic distances, its journey to Caltech required careful orchestration.

Built by the Korean Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI), the chamber required three years of design and construction, a monthlong boat ride across the Pacific Ocean, and a 30-ton crane to reach its destination at the university’s Cahill Center for Astronomy and Astrophysics in Pasadena, California.

It was too large to fit through the main entrance of its new home, so engineers used a crane to lift a removable section of the road out front and lower two sections of the chamber into the basement.

The chamber is customized to calibrate the SPHEREx spectrometer. Spectroscopy data can reveal what an object is made of and be used to estimate an object’s distance from Earth.

SPHEREx stands for the Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of Reionization and Ices Explorer. Managed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of Caltech, SPHEREx is set to launch no earlier than June 2024.

For more information about the SPHEREx mission, visit: jpl.nasa.gov/missions/spherex

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

NASA’s Curiosity Rover Turns 10: Here’s What It’s Learned (Mars News Report Aug. 5, 2022)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-08-05 | NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover set out to answer a big question when it landed on the Red Planet 10 years ago: Could Mars have supported ancient life? Scientists have discovered the answer is yes and have been working to learn more about the planet’s past habitable environment.

In this Mars Report, Curiosity Deputy Project Scientist Abigail Fraeman provides an update on the rover’s capabilities a decade after landing in Gale Crater. Now, Curiosity is heading to an area that may help answer how long ancient life could have persisted on the Red Planet as Mars went through significant changes in the climate.

Read more about where Curiosity is currently exploring. Download a poster celebrating Curiosity’s 10 years on Mars here.

Some of the images in the video include color enhancement that exaggerate small changes in color from place to place in the Martian scene. This makes it easier for the science team to use their everyday experience to interpret the landscape. For instance, the sky on Mars would not actually look blue to a human explorer on the Red Planet, but pinkish.

For more information on NASA's Mars missions, visit mars.nasa.gov.

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS/JHU-APL

Cold Atom Lab: Celebrating Four Years of Quantum Science in Space (Live Public Talk)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-08-04 | The Cold Atom Lab, NASA's first quantum science laboratory in space, will mark four years onboard the International Space Station on Aug. 4, 2022. It has already achieved its main science goals by cooling atoms down to ultra-cold temperatures to study their basic physical properties in ways that would not be possible on Earth. Join us for this exciting event and learn from some of the world's experts - from astronauts to Nobel Laureates - on the details of getting the unique Cold Atom Lab up and running, as well as the progress toward using microgravity to illuminate new features of the quantum world.

Speakers:
Christina Koch, astronaut, NASA Johnson Space Center
Eric Cornell, Nobel Laureate in physics, Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics
Kamal Oudrhiri, project manager for the Cold Atom Lab, NASA JPL
Jason Williams, project scientist for the Cold Atom Lab, NASA JPL

(Original Air Date: Aug. 4, 2022)

Monitoring Earth’s Vital Signs with NISAR: Meet the Mission Engineers (Live Q&A)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-08-03 | A new NASA Earth science mission is currently being built and tested at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. NISAR – or the NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar – is an Earth-orbiting satellite that will collect critical data on how the planet is responding to climate change. But before it can begin its science, JPL engineers must design and build the unique technology that will set it apart, including the largest reflector antenna ever launched by NASA.

In this live Q&A, we’ll talk with two NISAR mission team members and answer your questions about what it takes to monitor Earth’s vital signs.

Guests:
Wendy Edelstein, payload manager, NASA JPL
Richa Sirohi, systems engineer, NASA JPL

Originally aired: August 3, 2022

Whats Up: August 2022 Skywatching Tips from NASA

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-07-29 | What are some skywatching highlights in August 2022?

The daily parade of four naked-eye planets in the mornings comes to an end this month. But there are still lots of great highlights, especially if you have access to binoculars. Plus, Saturn and Jupiter are returning to nighttime skies! The outlook for the Perseid meteors isn't great due to a full moon on the peak night of August 12, but still it's worth keeping an eye out for early Perseids after midnight the week before. And August is a great month to learn an easy-to-spot constellation – Cygnus the swan.

0:00 Intro
0:11 Planet-watching highlights
1:56 Perseid meteors outlook
2:34 The constellation Cygnus
3:45 August Moon phases

Additional information about topics covered in this episode of What's Up, along with still images from the video, and the video transcript, are available at solarsystem.nasa.gov/skywatching/home.

Curiosity – A Decade on Mars (Live Public Talk)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-07-22 | Ten years and over 17 miles of driving has taught us there is more to Mars than we could ever imagine. We’ll take a look at highlights from the past decade of this extraordinary mission and see where it’s leading us next.

Speakers:
Dr. Ashwin Vasavada, Curiosity Project Scientist, NASA JPL
Keri Bean, Curiosity Rover Planner Deputy Team Lead, NASA JPL

Host:
Nikki Wyrick, Public Services Office, NASA JPL

Co-Host:
Sarah Marcotte, Public Outreach Specialist, NASA JPL

(Original Air Date: July 21, 2022)

JPL and the Space Age: Saving Galileo

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-07-14 | If any spacecraft could be said to have had nine lives, it was Galileo. At the time of its launch, this mission to Jupiter was the most sophisticated science spacecraft ever built. But the expectation of great science rewards almost was ruined when the spacecraft’s main antenna refused to unfurl.

“Saving Galileo” is the story of how NASA’s Galileo mission - designed, built, and operated by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory - was kept alive despite a multitude of technical challenges. It is also the story of a tight-knit team of scientists and engineers who were forged by adversity into what many came to call a family.

“Saving Galileo” tells how, despite many challenges and limitations, Galileo proved a resounding success.

Documentary length: 60 minutes

JPL and the Space Age: The Pathfinders

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-06-30 | It started with JPL agreeing to land something on Mars – cheaply – and do it in a radically different way. This is how the era NASA called “Faster, Better, Cheaper” began. The documentary film “The Pathfinders” tells the story of a small group of engineers at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory who did not heed warnings that the audacious challenge of landing on Mars with airbags would likely not be a career-enhancing move.

From relying on a parachute that could not be tested in a way to match the Martian atmosphere to receiving the late addition of an unwanted rover that wouldn’t have looked out of place in a toy store, the Mars Pathfinder mission was a doubter’s dream, taken on by a mostly young group of engineers and scientists guided by a grizzled manager known for his maverick ways.

“The Pathfinders” retraces the journey of this daring mission to Mars that captured the imagination of people around the world with its dramatic landing and its tiny rover – the first wheels ever to roll on Mars.

Documentary length: 60 minutes

Whats Up: July 2022 Skywatching Tips from NASA

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-06-30 | What are some skywatching highlights in July 2022?

The naked-eye planets of dawn – Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn – dominate the sky, appearing more spread out each morning. Next, if you're feeling the July heat, note the origin of "the dog days" of summer has to do with the bright star Sirius. Finally, if you can find a certain teapot-shaped pattern of stars in the evening, you'll be looking toward the center of the Milky Way.

0:00 Intro
0:11 Morning planet lineup
0:40 Sirius and the "dog days" of summer
1:50 The Teapot and Milky Way core
3:11 July Moon phases

Additional information about topics covered in this episode of What's Up, along with still images from the video, and the video transcript, are available at solarsystem.nasa.gov/skywatching/home.

NASA InSight’s End of Mission: What the Lander’s Data Can Still Teach Us About Mars (Expert Q&A)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-06-29 | NASA’s InSight lander mission has detected more than 1,300 marsquakes since touching down on Mars in 2018, providing information that has allowed scientists to measure the depth and composition of Mars’ crust, mantle, and core.

As power on the spacecraft diminishes, the InSight team hopes to maximize the science and increase the possibility of recording additional marsquakes.

Join mission team members who were in the In-Situ Instrument Laboratory (ISIL) at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory to learn how InSight’s twin model, ForeSight, has assisted the Mars lander’s engineering team throughout its mission and how scientists will continue studying InSight’s data for years to come.

For more information on the mission, visit mars.nasa.gov/insight

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

(Original Air Date: June 28, 2022)

Spacecraft Assembly, Test, and Launch Operations (ATLO) (Live Public Talk)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-06-24 | What does it take to build a spacecraft? It’s up to the Spacecraft Assembly, Test, and Launch Operations (ATLO) team to assemble it, bake it, shake it, get it to the pad and launch it.

Speakers:
Michelle Tomey Colizzi, Mechanical Engineer, NASA JPL
Luis A Dominguez, ATLO Electrical & Dep. Systems Lead, NASA JPL

Host:
Nikki Wyrick, Public Services Office, NASA JPL

Co-Host:
Brian White, Public Services Office, NASA JPL

(Original Air Date: June 23, 2022)

How Scientists Study Wind on Mars (NASA Mars News Report June 22, 2022)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-06-22 | NASA's spacecraft on Mars are all affected by the winds of the Red Planet, which can produce a tiny dust devil or a global dust storm.

NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Deputy Project Scientist Leslie Tamppari explains how images from the orbiter's HiRISE camera help scientists better understand Martian winds. With the help of 80,000 citizen scientists sorting through the orbiter’s images, hundreds of thousands of wind “fans” were identified on the surface of Mars.

Scientists use wind to understand the climate of Mars today and in the past. These wind data can also help them study why some dust storms grow to become global and others don’t. Studying wind and dust will help future spacecraft and human missions.

For more information on NASA's Mars missions, visit mars.nasa.gov.

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS/University of Arizona

Whats Up: June 2022 Skywatching Tips from NASA

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-06-01 | What are some skywatching highlights in June 2022?

The morning quartet of Jupiter, Saturn, Venus, and Mars continues to shine, though they will spread farther apart over the next couple of months. Globular cluster M13, aka the Hercules Cluster, is best observed with a telescope, but binoculars will reveal it as a fuzzy spot. And the constellation Lyra is easily located thanks to its brightest star, Vega.

0:00 Intro
0:11 Morning planets spread out
0:44 Globular Cluster M13
2:20 Find the Constellation Lyra
3:42 June Moon phases

Additional information about topics covered in this episode of What's Up, along with still images from the video, and the video transcript, are available at solarsystem.nasa.gov/skywatching/home.

NASA’s Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Captures Record Flight

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-05-27 | NASA’s Ingenuity Mars Helicopter made a record-breaking 25th flight on April 18, 2022. The navigation camera aboard the rotorcraft captured its longest and fastest flight to date on the Red Planet. The helicopter covered 2,310 feet (704 meters) at a max speed of 12 mph (5.5 meters per second).

Footage of the 161.3-second flight was sped up approximately five times. In the video, Ingenuity first reaches an altitude of 33 feet (10 meters). The helicopter then moves southwest and accelerates to 12 mph (5.5 meters per second) in less than three seconds. Ingenuity flies over a group of sand ripples and then by several rock fields. Finally, the helicopter finds a landing spot when relatively flat terrain appears below.

Ingenuity became the first aircraft in history to make a powered, controlled flight on another planet on April 19, 2021, from Wright Brothers Field in Jezero Crater, Mars.

For more information on Ingenuity, visit: mars.nasa.gov/technology/helicopter

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

NuSTAR – Studying the Universe in X-Ray (Live Public Talk)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-05-27 | The Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array, or NuSTAR, is the first space telescope capable of taking focused high-energy X-ray observations of the cosmos, providing unprecedented information on the dynamics of black holes, exploding stars and the most extreme active galaxies. Learn how NuSTAR has expanded our knowledge of the universe after almost a decade of operation.

Speaker:
Dr. Brian Grefenstette, NuSTAR Principal Mission Scientist, Caltech

Host:
Marc Razze, Public Services Office, NASA/JPL

Co-Host:
Brian White, Public Services Office, NASA/JPL

(Original Air Date: May 26, 2022)

NASA InSight Still Hunting Marsquakes as Power Runs Down (News Audio + Visuals)

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-05-17 | In November 2018, NASA InSight landed in the Elysium Planitia region of Mars with the goal of studying the planet’s deep interior for the first time by using seismic signals to learn more about the properties of the planet’s crust, mantle, and core. In a teleconference, agency leadership and mission team members highlighted the spacecraft’s science accomplishments, shared details on its power situation, and discussed its future.

Speakers:
Lori Glaze, director of NASA’s Planetary Science Division at NASA Headquarters
Bruce Banerdt, InSight principal investigator, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Kathya Zamora Garcia, InSight deputy project manager, JPL

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

(Original Air Date: May 17, 2022)

NASA’s InSight Lander Accomplishes Science Goals on Mars as Power Levels Diminish

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-05-17 | NASA’s InSight lander touched down in the Elysium Planitia region of Mars in November of 2018. During its time on the Red Planet, InSight has achieved all its primary science goals and continues to hunt for quakes on Mars.

The mission is the first to reveal the interior structure of Mars, using marsquakes to study the layers inside the planet. InSight’s seismometer was the first to detect a quake on another planet. InSight also measured weather at Elysium Planitia for four years with a unique set of meteorological sensors.

InSight has also persisted through adversity. The team found innovative ways to take on engineering challenges they encountered. InSight’s findings help scientists understand how all rocky worlds, including Earth and its Moon, formed.

For more information on InSight, visit mars.nasa.gov/insight

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

JPL and the Space Age: To the Rescue

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2022-05-12 | In 1990, Hubble meant trouble. The highly touted space telescope was designed to escape Earth’s blurry atmosphere to capture unparalleled visual images of the universe, but its creators were shocked to discover that a minuscule flaw rendered it nearsighted.

Enter NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory scientists and engineers, who offered up an ingenious solution to Hubble’s visual woes. But would it work?

Hubble wasn’t the only space misadventure getting JPL’s attention during the 1990s: The Magellan spacecraft, nicknamed “Salvage 1” for its reliance on spare parts, barely survived its arrival at Venus. Galileo, destined for Jupiter, barely skirted failure when its main communications antenna refused to unfurl. And Mars Observer, the first mission to the Red Planet in nearly two decades, would mysteriously disappear just before going into orbit.

“To the Rescue” explores these iconic examples of the tireless effort and indomitable ingenuity of JPL engineers as they attempt to rescue the machines they had lofted into the heavens.

Documentary length: 58 minutes