Trilobites are extinct - an arthropod from the Paleozoic Era Paleozoo 2019-10-28 | Trilobites are extinct arthropods from the Paleozoic Era. The Trilobite clade have flattened oval bodies, segmented exoskeletons divided into three parts, compound eyes and podomere limbs with branching gills (biramous). Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are high quality, collectable figurines of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth.They are the work of paleoartist Bruce Currie.More information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auOther Paleozoo videos:History of Earth - in brief youtu.be/2LMfSTq4JIY
Dunkleosteus - extinct Devonian predator Paleozoo 2024-09-26 | Dunkleosteus - extinct Devonian predator (~370 Mya). The apex predator of its time Dunkleosteus grew up to 9 metres in length and was possibly the largest of all creatures that existed during the Devonian Age of Fishes.Dunkleosteus is a member of the order Arthrodira - meaning "jointed neck". This anatomical feature allowed the armoured skull to pivot upwards around a cranial-thoracic joint producing an extra wide gape. This, in conjunction with a powerful jaw configuration, meant that Dunkleosteus was capable of biting down with enormous pressure (Anderson, 2007). Studies also suggest that Dunkleosteus would have been able to open its mouth extremely quickly - creating a partial vacuum that helped suck prey into the mouth.Further information on Dunkleosteus terrelli can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auPaleozoo Evolutionary Portraits are the creation of paleoartist Bruce Currie
Megalograptus model from Paleozoo Paleozoo 2024-09-19 | Megalograptus model from Paleozoo represents an extinct eurypterid arthropod that dominated the Late Ordovician and Silurian periods. It is regarded as an apex predator of the period.Eurypterids were marine arthropods and dominant predators during this period with Megalograptus being the largest and most fearsome of all - reaching lengths of over 750 mm. It had a robust, elongated body and large pincers (chelae) that were well-adapted for grabbing prey. Its body was covered with a hard exoskeleton, which provided protection and support. It also had a distinctive telson, or tail segment, that was spike-shaped and featured unique cercal blades - though it was not venomous like modern scorpions.This anatomically accurate model has been created by paleo-artist Bruce Currie.Further information on Megalograptus ohioensis can be found @ https://www.Paleozoo.com.au
Megalograptus - Ordovician Sea Scorpion Paleozoo 2024-09-18 | Megalograptus - Ordovician "Sea Scorpion" is an extinct arthropod that dominated the Late Ordovician and Silurian periods. It is regarded as an apex predator of the period.Eurypterids were marine arthropods and dominant predators during this period with Megalograptus being the largest and most fearsome of all - reaching lengths of over 750 mm. It had a robust, elongated body and large pincers (chelae) that were well-adapted for grabbing prey. Its body was covered with a hard exoskeleton, which provided protection and support. It also had a distinctive telson, or tail segment, that was spike-shaped and featured unique cercal blades - though it was not venomous like modern scorpions.This anatomically accurate model has been created by paleo-artist Bruce Currie.Further information on Megalograptus ohioensis can be found @ https://www.Paleozoo.com.au
Tiktaalik Devonian Fishapod Paleozoo 2024-07-27 | Tiktaalik Devonian Fishapod is an extinct sarcopterygian which evolved during the late Devonian period (~375 mya). Tiktaalik is regarded as an important transitional lifeform, with an anatomy that displays a number of features that indicate a clear linkage between fish and tetrapod (land vertebrate). These anatomical features point to how life may have moved from water onto land. Tiktaalik is thought to have been among the first vertebrates to cross this margin.Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the first animals to evolve on Earth and they are the work of paleoartist Bruce Currie. More information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
Sanctacaris Cambrian Chelicerate Paleozoo 2024-06-22 | Sanctacaris uncata is an extinct arthropod species that lived during the Middle Cambrian period, approximately 505 million years ago. It is the oldest known member of the chelicerate phylum, which includes modern-day spiders, and crustaceans.
Mistaken Point Rangeomorph Bradgatia Paleozoo 2024-06-01 | Mistaken Point Rangeomorph Bradgatia is an extinct Ediacaran frondose lifeform (~ 570 Mya). It is one of the first complex multi-cellular organisms to appear on Earth.Bradgatia is another of the puzzling lifeforms from the Precambrian period. Made up of six or more frondose units the whole organism grew to about 20 cm in height and resembled an elongated cabbage - however it existed long before the evolution of plants. Distinctive fractal-like growth patterns classify Bradgatia as a rangeomorph. The unusual branching morphology of rangeomorphs differs from all other organisms and is highly enigmatic and hard for paleontology to classify.Rangeomorphs are thought to have become extinct by the end of the Ediacaran period - possibly due to the rise of early animals. How rangeomorphs exactly fit into evolutionary history is still being debated.More information can be found at https://paleozoo.com.au
Cambrian Explosion of Animalia Paleozoo 2024-05-25 | Cambrian Explosion of Animalia is still perplexing to modern paleontology. The relatively sudden appearance of animal lifeforms that occurred at this point in Earth's history remains an evolutionary mystery. Various hypotheses have been put forward to try and account for rapid outburst of animal phyla at this time but no agreement has yet been reached. After billions of years of single-cellular evolution why did animals suddenly appear in the Cambrian fossil horizons?Lifeforms constructed in consultation with Dr Jean-Bernard Caron - Royal Ontario Museum.Written and animated by Bruce Currie - PaleozooMore information can be found at https://paleozoo.com.au
Ediacaran Garden the first animals Paleozoo 2024-05-05 | Ediacaran Garden refers to the Ediacara Biota, an assemblage of ancient soft-bodied organisms that lived during the Ediacaran Period, which lasted from approximately 635 to 541 million years ago. These organisms are some of the earliest complex multicellular life forms known in the fossil record. The Ediacaran Biota includes various forms such as rangeomorphs, discoidal organisms, and other enigmatic creatures, some of which have no modern analogs. These fossils provide valuable insights into the early evolution of complex life on Earth.
Cambrian Trilobite clade Paleozoo 2024-03-23 | Cambrian Trilobite clade model from Paleozoo.Trilobites are extinct marine arthropods from the Paleozoic Era (~500 mya ~ 250 mya). The longevity of their existence makes Trilobites important index fossils - helping to define and date the age of periodic horizons.The Trilobite Clade is characterized by a flattened oval body - comprised of a three part segmented exoskeleton. Compound eyes and podomere limbs with branching gills (biramous limbs) are additional defining features of trilobites. Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are high quality portraits of some of the first animals to evolve on Earth. They are the work of paleoartist Bruce Currie.More information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
Ediacaran Rangeomorph Primocandelabrum Paleozoo 2024-02-01 | Ediacaran Rangeomorph Primocandelabrum is an extinct Ediacaran frondose lifeform (~ 570 Mya) and one of the first complex, multi-cellular organisms to appear on Earth.Rangeomorphs are known to have been benthic organisms that existed in the deep ocean away from sunlight - which means that they could not have been a form of photosynthesising plant. The fractal nature of rangeomorph morphology also precludes them from being classified as early animals so they remain something of a mystery with regards to taxonomic classification. What kind of life were they?Primocandelabrum is a member of the rangeomorph group. Made up of three frondose units that sit atop a robust stem, the whole organism resembled a feather duster in shape. It grew to around 25 cm in height.The unusual branching morphology of rangeomorphs differs from all other organisms and is highly enigmatic and hard for paleontology to classify. Rangeomorphs are thought to have become extinct by the end of the Ediacaran period - possibly due to the rise of early animals. How rangeomorphs fit into evolutionary history is still being debated.Sculpt and animation by Bruce CurrieMore information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
Rangeomorph Bradgatia Paleozoo 2023-09-06 | Rangeomorph Bradgatia is an extinct Ediacaran frondose lifeform (~ 570 Mya). It is one of the first complex multi-cellular organisms to appear on Earth.Bradgatia is another of the puzzling lifeforms from the Precambrian period. Made up of six or more frondose units the whole organism grew to about 20 cm in height and resembled an elongated cabbage - however it existed long before the evolution of plants. Distinctive fractal-like growth patterns classify Bradgatia as a rangeomorph. The unusual branching morphology of rangeomorphs differs from all other organisms and is highly enigmatic and hard for paleontology to classify.Rangeomorphs are thought to have become extinct by the end of the Ediacaran period - possibly due to the rise of early animals. How rangeomorphs exactly fit into evolutionary history is still being debated.More information can be found at https://paleozoo.com.au
Rangeomorph by Paleozoo Paleozoo 2023-08-10 | Rangeomorph Hapsidophyllas is an extinct Ediacaran frondose lifeform (~ 570 Mya) and one of the first complex, multi-cellular, organisms to appear on Earth. It is a member of the mysterious Rangeomorph group of organisms that were abundant during the Ediacaran period. Recognised as being neither plants nor animals rangeomorpha have been hard for palaeontologists to classify. It is still unclear which kingdom of life they belong within.Composed of at least ten multi-branched lanceolate leaflets - radiating from a single basal rod with each leaflet growing to about 10 cm in length - Hapsidophyllas is yet another puzzling lifeform of the enigmatic Ediacaran period.This is a museum grade model that has been carefully researched (Bamforth and Narbonne 2009). Created by paleoartist Bruce Currie/Paleozoo it makes for an ideal classroom asset or stand-alone collector's item in its own right.Further information on Hapsidophyllas and other Ediacaran lifeforms can be found above at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
Marrella splendens - Cambrian arthropodomorph. Paleozoo 2023-05-04 | Marrella splendens is an extinct Cambrian stem-group arthropod that flourished during the Middle Cambrian period (~ 500 mya).Discovered by Charles Doolittle Walcott in 1909 in the famous Burgess Shale of British Columbia, Marrella splendens is one of the most emblematic Paleozoic organisms - closely associated with the concept of the "Cambrian Explosion" and consequently our understandings of evolutionary biology.This finely detailed model has been carefully researched and sculpted by paleoartist Bruce Currie with feedback from Associate Professor Diego Garcia-Bellido of the University of Adelaide.Further information on Marrella splendens can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
Anomalocaris Cambrian predator Paleozoo 2023-03-22 | Anomalocaris Cambrian predatorAnomalocaris canadensis is an extinct stem-group arthropod from the Cambrian period (~505 Mya). It is one of the most famous and intriguing organisms in paleontology. With an unusual morphology that includes interleaving lobes along the side of its body, stalked compound eyes, a circular plate-rimmed mouth and a pair of distinctive grasping forelimbs, Anomalocaris is thought to have been one of the Earth's first apex predators.Paleozoo animations and models are portraits of some of the first animals to evolve on Earth.More information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
History of Earth - in brief Paleozoo 2022-11-12 | History of Earth - in brief - Paleozoo.How old is the Earth? When did life first appear upon it? How did we come to be here? Questions as old as humankind.History of Earth - in brief - an outline of the evolution of the planet from its Hadean origins to its Anthropocene present. A timeline of the history of life on Earth.The Earth has undergone constant change in its 4.54 billion year history, with life evolving in response to those changes - in particular to the changing atmospheric compositions of carbon dioxide and oxygen. Species extinctions have been a natural part of the evolutionary processes of the planet throughout its long history, however there are now thought to have been at least 8 mass extinction events in the history of the Earth - each of major consequence to life on the planet and of import to our modern understandings of climate change. There have been many extinction events, both great and small, but the most profound of these would be the End-Permian Extinction that closed the Palaeozoic era (~252 Ma). Also known as the Great Dying, it is thought that over 90% of all marine species and 70% of all terrestrial species became extinct. A rapid increase in surface temperatures towards the end of this period brought about a collapse in the carbon cycle - starving life on land and subsequently suffocating life in the oceans. No environmental niche was left unchanged by the Permian Extinction.From the earliest ages of the planet - when microbial blooms spread around the globe - up to the radiation of Homo sapiens, life has repeatedly colonized every viable location on the planet. Life is nothing if not resilient and great extinctions serve to highlight this. Even if only a few isolated pockets of single-celled organisms survived a global extinction event - an event even more destructive than the Great Permian Extinction - life would continue on, evolving, adapting and radiating back across the world as soon as conditions allow. ~Written and animated by Bruce Currie More information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auKEY REFERENCE:Ward and Kirschvink, 2015 ‘A New History of Life’ https://www.amazon.com.auNew-History-Life-Discoveries-Evolution/dp/1408835525International Commission on Stratigraphy. stratigraphy.orgNASA - Visible Earth catalogue visibleearth.nasa.gov/collection/1484/blue-marbleBritish Geological Society. bgs.ac.ukGeological Society of America geosociety.orgGplates - Earthbytes earthbyte.org/gplatesPaleomap Project - Christopher Scotese. http://www.scotese.comAlgol - History of the Earth youtube.com/watch?v=Q1OreyX0-fwResearchgate.net researchgate.netOther Paleozoo videos include:youtu.be/Wu7BYTDkjWk
Was Kimberella the first mollusc? Paleozoo 2022-10-22 | Was Kimberella first mollusc? Kimberella quadrata is an extinct bilaterian organism from the late Ediacaran period (635 -542 Mya). Thought to be a stem-mollusc (Fedonkin & Waggoner, 1997) although the affinity is not agreed upon.Kimberella had an ovate shell-like cap that was non-mineralised and flexible. The surface of the cap was covered in hardened raised nodules that are thought to have been anchor points for an array of dorso-ventral muscles that extended down to a single muscular "foot". A ripple wave motion through the foot enabled movement.An extensive frill-like structure radiated out from beneath the central cap and this is thought to have functioned like an oxygenating gill.No feeding appendage has been discovered for Kimberella but scrape marks found in association with fossil remains (Gehling et al., 2014) suggest Kimberella had a proboscis type appendage - similar to a modern snail's radula - that it used to gather and eat nutrients. This in turn suggests the development of a rudimentary gut system.It is important to tease out the affinities between Ediacaran and Cambrian organisms because it would help resolve "Darwin's Dilemma". This dilemma refers to the sudden appearance in the Cambrian geological record of so many complex and varied lifeforms which represent all modern animal body-plans or Phylum. This presented a problem for Darwin's theory of evolution. This sudden appearance of complex lifeforms within the Cambrian strata begged the question "where are the ancestors of these lifeforms?"The discovery of many Precambrian lifeforms since Darwin's lifetime has largely resolved Darwin's dilemma although affinities between those lifeforms and the ones that followed are still to be agreed upon.Animation by Bruce CurrieMore information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auOther Paleozoo videos:History of Earth - in brief youtu.be/2LMfSTq4JIY
Was Dickinsonia the first animal on Earth? Paleozoo 2022-10-11 | Was Dickinsonia the first animal to evolve during the Ediacaran period?Dickinsonia is an extinct organism from the Ediacaran period (635 - 543 Mya) and it is one of the first complex multi-cellular organisms to appear on Earth. It is also one of the most distinctive creatures of this period with its flattened, bilaterally segmented, disc shaped body.Dickinsonia was first discovered in 1947 by Reg Sprigg in the Flinders Ranges of South Australia but has since been found around the world. It varied greatly in size from a few millimetres up to one metre in length. Recent molecular examination of organically preserved material has revealed that Dickinsonia produced cholesterol (Bobrovskiy et al, 2018) which is a characteristic of animal life, firmly placing Dickinsonia at the base of Kingdom Animalia.Animation by Bruce CurrieMore information can be found at https//www.paleozoo.com.au
Australia a brief history - from the dawn of animals to modern man. Paleozoo 2022-09-17 | Australia a brief history - from the dawn of animals to modern man.Over its 4.54 billion year history the Earth has undergone numerous changes - with shifting tectonic plates constantly sculpting and resculpted the surface of the planet. Some of its earliest geological and evolutionary history can be traced in the rocks of Australia - from its first life to its first animals.This short animation traces Australia's geological and evolutionary journey from the Crygenian period (~ 600 million years ago) to the present day - from the dawn of animals to modern man.We live in a time of great change, both for ourselves and for all other life on the planet. History provides us with a warning: all life is vulnerable to extinction.Written and animated by Bruce Currie - Commissioned by the Australian Fossil and Mineral Museum – Bathurst. https://museumsbathurst.com.auMore information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auOther Paleozoo videos:History of Earth - in brief youtu.be/2LMfSTq4JIY
Rangeomorphs of the Ediacaran period. Paleozoo 2022-09-15 | Rangeomorphs of the Ediacaran period existed ~570 million years ago. They lived deep in the oceans of the worls - too far from light to be photosynthetic organisms like plants or algae but also not classifiable as early animals. So what kind of life were they?Broadly identified as rangeomorpha they are now thought to have become extinct at the end of the Ediacaran period - preceding the sudden "Cambrian Explosion" of animal lifeforms. The evolutionary relationship to the creatures that followed is still being debated and they await full taxonomic classification.Most Ediacaran lifeforms are thought to have become extinct during a global mass extinction that occurred just before the Cambrian period. The cause of this mass extinction remains unknown but it resulted in radically different environmental conditions that may have included elevated oxygen levels and changes in the nutrient content of the oceans. ~Models commissioned by The Royal Ontario Museum of Canada for its newly constructed "Dawn of Life" gallery (2021). The models are based on descriptions provided by leading paleontologists from around the world, in consultation with Dr Jean-Bernard Caron.Sculpted and animated by Bruce CurrieMore information on Ediacaran biota an be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auOther Paleozoo videos include:youtu.be/2LMfSTq4JIYyoutu.be/jmbRHhctDKUyoutu.be/2N81dZVA7vcyoutu.be/PLGkgSoKvtk
Dawn of Animals - the Ediacaran enigma Paleozoo 2022-08-20 | Dawn of Animals - the Ediacaran enigma.570 million years ago, complex life flourished in the oceans of the Earth. What kind of life it was and how it relates to the lifeforms that followed is still not entirely clear.In the history of life on Earth the Ediacaran period (635 - 542 Mya) is regarded as a watershed in the evolution of complex life. This is the time that biological traits such as bilateralism, heads and tails and internal organs first appeared - the dawn of animals as we understand them. Some Ediacaran lifeforms known as Rangeomorphs existed deep in the oceans far from light - so they could not have been photosynthetic organisms like plants or algae. Rangeomorphs also displayed distinctive fractal branching anatomies which are unlike any known modern body-plan or phylum. This all poses the question: what kind of life were they? Rangeomorphs became extinct at the end of the Ediacaran period. However, other Ediacaran lifeforms managed to survive the period extinction event and some of those went on to have a more direct relationship to the Animalia of the following Cambrian period.Probably existing in shallower seas, some of these creatures developed the ability to move about independently - and some of these evolving light sensitive cells on rudimentary heads. These are thought to have been the first animals. The creatures of the Ediacaran period await full taxonomic classification. ~The Mistaken Point rangeomorph models were commissioned by the Royal Ontario Museum.All models are built from descriptions provided by leading palaeontologists from around the world in consultation with Dr Jean-Bernard Caron of the Royal Ontario Museum."Dawn of Animals" written and animated by Bruce Currie.Paleozoo. https://www.paleozoo.com.au
Life Ediacaran - an enigma. Paleozoo 2022-05-04 | Life Ediacaran - an enigma.Over 570 million years ago the deep ocean floor was covered in an array of complex, multi-cellular, lifeforms - too far from light to be photosynthetic organisms like plants or algae but also not classifiable as early animals. So what kind of life were they?Broadly identified as rangeomorpha they are now thought to have become extinct at the end of the Ediacaran period - preceding the sudden "Cambrian Explosion" of animal lifeforms. The evolutionary relationship to the creatures that followed is still being debated and they await full taxonomic classification.In the history of life the Ediacaran period is regarded as a watershed in evolutionary biology, where anatomical characteristics such as bilateralism, heads and tails and internal organs first appeared.During this period most anatomy was hydrostatic in nature - bodies comprised of tissue segments filled with pressurized fluid - similar to modern worms. The morphology of most creatures followed basic patterning which varied from fractal branching to radial segmentation to bilateral symmetry. Anatomies were built up from sequenced cellular units (metamerism) and at times were fractal in nature. Repetition of these simple forms - in conjunction with changing environments and genetic variation - is thought to have led to ever more complex life.Unlike the creatures of the Cambrian period that were to follow, very few of the Ediacaran biota can as yet be associated with any modern phylum. Most are thought to have become extinct during a period of global mass extinction that occurred just before the Cambrian period. The cause of this mass extinction remains unknown but it resulted in radically different environmental conditions that may have included elevated oxygen levels and changes in the nutrient content of the oceans. ~Models commissioned by The Royal Ontario Museum of Canada for its newly constructed "Dawn of Life" gallery (2021). The models are based on descriptions provided by leading paleontologists from around the world, in consultation with Dr Jean-Bernard Caron.Sculpted and animated by Bruce CurrieMore information on Ediacaran biota an be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auOther Paleozoo videos include:youtu.be/jmbRHhctDKUyoutu.be/2N81dZVA7vcyoutu.be/PLGkgSoKvtk
Mandageria fairfaxi - NSW State fossil. Paleozoo 2022-02-05 | Mandageria fairfaxi is an extinct sarcopterygian predatory fish of the Late Devonian period that grew up to 2 metres in length. Mandageria fairfaxi was first described in 1997 (Johanson, Alhberg,) and it is the largest fish to be found in the renowned Devonian fossil beds of Canowindra, Australia. It was a predator with a similar morphology to modern Pike - although they are not directly related - and, like the Pike, it was capable of rapid bursts of speed, driven forward by a powerful broad caudal fin and torpedo shaped body.The most distinguishing feature of sarcopterygians are the lobe-fins that contain rudimentary bones which correlate with the limb bones of all land vertebrates (eg. humerus, radius, ulna). These fleshy limbs may at first appear cumbersome but they enabled a skulling motion that in conjunction with the swim bladder allowed the fish to hold its position underwater, waiting on passing prey. Mandageria would have been a formidable ambush predator. Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the first animals to evolve on Earth.More information on Mandageria fairfaxi can be found at Paleozoo.com.au
Trilobite: Paleozoic arthropod from Paleozoo. Paleozoo 2022-02-05 | Trilobites are extinct marine arthropods from the Paleozoic Era (~500 mya ~ 250 mya). The clade is characterised by a flattened oval body with a segmented exoskeleton, divided into three parts. Compound eyes and podomere limbs with branching gills (biramous limbs) are additional defining features of the class Trilobita.
Pikaia gracilens - vertebrate ancestor? Paleozoo 2021-11-26 | Pikaia gracilens is an extinct basal chordate from the Middle Cambrian period (505 mya) which grew up to 50 mm in length.First discovered by Charles Walcott in the famous Burgess Shale there has been much debate about Pikaia's taxonomic classification – in particular its relationship to the vertebrate clade. Once thought to be the oldest known chordate - the direct ancestor of all vertebrates - Pikaia is now considered to belong to a stem group of basal chordates that included the ancestors of modern vertebrates. Even if Pikaia were not the direct ancestor of modern vertebrates a creature with many of the same anatomical features almost certainly was.Pikaia's most defining feature is the putative notochord that runs along the head-tail axis of its body. The notochord is a rod-like flexible organ that, among other roles, acts as an anchor for muscles within an organism which in turn facilitates movement. Over many generations the notochord was to become encased within the calcified bones of a vertebral column – the defining feature of all vertebrates. This anatomically accurate model has been created by paleoartist Bruce Currie and it is available to purchase from Paleozoo Evolutionary Models. Further information on Pikaia & Vauxia can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auPaleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth. Other Paleozoo videos include:youtu.be/PTGxJyEA_C4youtu.be/jmbRHhctDKUyoutu.be/2N81dZVA7vcyoutu.be/PLGkgSoKvtk
Trilobite: an extinct marine arthropod from the Paleozoic Era Paleozoo 2021-11-25 | Trilobites are extinct marine arthropods from the Paleozoic Era (~500 mya ~ 250 mya). The Trilobite Clade is characterised by a flattened oval body - comprised of a three part segmented exoskeleton. Compound eyes and podomere limbs with branching gills (biramous limbs) are additional defining features of trilobites. Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are high quality portraits of some of the first animals to evolve on Earth. They are the work of paleoartist Bruce Currie.More information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
Plate Tectonics of Earth - the engine of evolution. Paleozoo 2021-11-06 | Plate tectonics are the large scale geological processes that alter the structure of the Earth's crust. Arguably the core engine of evolution on the planet.The rigid outermost shell of the planet is called the lithosphere and consists of the crust and upper mantle. The lithosphere is fractured into a number of plates that slide across the lower mantle forming cratons and oceanic trenches.The lithosphere is believed to have formed approximately 4 billion years ago with the cooling that followed the initial Hadean eon of Earth. This cooling allowed a crust to form on the Earth’s surface and from the early formation of the lithosphere onwards continents have been building up, breaking apart and moving around the globe.The fissures at the base of oceanic trenches are caused by plate tectonics and these are now being looked to as a possible source for the origins of life. Many astrobiologists suspect that tectonic plate activity in other planetary bodies may be a sign of potential life.It’s speculated that tectonic plate activity not only 'produced' life but also forms the primary engine that 'drives' the evolutionary processes that follow. Variation in the gene underpins biological evolution. In a similar fashion variation in the environment underpins extinction and re-population rates. The primary force for environmental change during the life of a planet may be tectonic plate activity - as it forms and breaks apart continents, creates and empties oceans, pushes up mountains and causes extreme temperature variation.Tectonic plate activity is not the sole driver of environmental processes - particularly once life has emerged and biological feed-back loops start to occur - however it may be the single largest factor that affects the formation and evolution of life on a planet.
Ammonite - Cephalopodia - Index Fossil Paleozoo 2021-11-03 | Ammonites are extinct marine molluscs of the class Cephalopodia that appeared midway through the Paleozoic Era (~ 400 mya). They typically had a ribbed spiral-form shell that encased soft body parts and a hardened beak. Ammonites had a wide dispersion and their remains have been found in large numbers around the world. To date no trace fossil has been found of the soft body parts of an ammonite but they are believed to have been similar in anatomy to modern cephalopods such as squid.Ammonites were able to move widely through the water column using a combination of buoyancy adjustment and siphoned jet propulsion to control their movement. The buoyancy was created by filling and emptying the chambers (camera) of the shell with water via a feature called the siphuncle. Propulsion was created by squirting water through an organ similar to the extant cephalopod hypernome.Ammonites came in all sizes from the very small to the very large and many grew striking protuberances and spines - thought to have been evolving defence mechanisms against ever larger predators. They are presumed to have had good eyesight so markings and colouration are also thought to have been on display, playing an important role in their appearance.Ammonites are thought to have been predators - adept at gliding across seabeds using their arms and tentacles to grab prey as it passed by. If attacked themselves they could pull back into the hardened shell and close down a leathery mantle. This dual ability to hunt and protect themselves proved very effective as ammonites survived for over 300 million years.Because of their wide distribution over such an extensive period of time, ammonites have become important index fossils for evolutionary science.Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are highly detailed portraits of some of the first animals to evolve on Earth. This detailed, museum grade model has been created by paleoartist Bruce Currie.More information on Ammonites can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au/ammoniteOther Paleozoo animations include:youtu.be/PTGxJyEA_C4youtu.be/jmbRHhctDKUyoutu.be/2N81dZVA7vcyoutu.be/PLGkgSoKvtk
Diplocaulus magnicornis - Late Carboniferous amphibian Paleozoo 2021-10-30 | Diplocaulus magnicornis is an extinct lepospondyl amphibian from the Late Carboniferous through Permian periods (300 - 250 mya). With its unusual boomerang shaped head Diplocaulus has become one of the most recognizable creatures of the Paleozoic era.A number of hypotheses have been put forward to explain the unusual morphology of Diplocaulus' s skull - ranging from its possible use as burrowing tool to a defensive adaptation that made it hard for a predator to swallow. Another hypothesis is that it provided lift when swimming - working as a kind of hydrofoil - suggesting that Diplocaulus may have been an active predator swimming up through the water column to engulf prey in its large toothed mouth.More information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auPaleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the first animals to evolve on Earth. All models and animations are the work of paleoartist Bruce Currie.Other Paleozoo videos include:youtu.be/PTGxJyEA_C4youtu.be/jmbRHhctDKUyoutu.be/2N81dZVA7vcyoutu.be/PLGkgSoKvtk
Pikaia gracilens - middle Cambrian basal chordate. Paleozoo 2021-10-24 | Pikaia gracilens is an extinct basal chordate from the Middle Cambrian period (505 mya) which grew up to 50 mm in length.First discovered by Charles Walcott in the famous Burgess Shale there has been much debate about Pikaia's taxonomic classification – in particular its relationship to the vertebrate clade. Once thought to be the oldest known chordate - the direct ancestor of all vertebrates - Pikaia is now considered to belong to a stem group of basal chordates that included the ancestors of modern vertebrates. Even if Pikaia were not the direct ancestor of modern vertebrates a creature with many of the same anatomical features almost certainly was. This anatomically accurate model has been created by paleoartist Bruce Currie and it is available to purchase from Paleozoo Evolutionary Models. Further information on Pikaia & Vauxia can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auPaleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth. Other Paleozoo videos include:youtu.be/PTGxJyEA_C4youtu.be/jmbRHhctDKUyoutu.be/2N81dZVA7vcyoutu.be/PLGkgSoKvtk
Wiwaxia corrugata - Creature of the Cambrian Explosion ~ 505 mya Paleozoo 2021-10-17 | Wiwaxia corrugata is an extinct stem-mollusc from the Middle Cambrian period (505 mya). It is one of the most examined and controversial organisms associated with the famous "Cambrian Explosion" of novel lifeforms.Although first described in 1895 (G.F. Matthew) from a single discovered spine, the first complete specimens of Wiwaxia were discovered in 1911 in the Burgess Shale deposits of British Columbia by Charles Doolittle Walcott. Since then the debate on classification has gone backwards and forwards. Wiwaxia is covered in rows of imbricating, chitinous sclerites with additional rows of dorso-lateral spines - which give it a distinctive armoured appearance and suggests a relationship with Polychaete Annelida. However, Wiwaxia moved around on a single, unsegmented, locomotory foot - in much the same manner as a modern snail - suggesting it might belong in the Mollusca phylum. Wiwaxia could even belong to an unknown and now extinct phylum. On balance, Wiwaxia is currently regarded as an extinct stem-mollusc. (M. Smith 2014) - closely related to the common ancestor of modern molluscs.Further information on Wiwaxia corrugata can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auPaleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth. All models and animations are the work of paleoartist Bruce Currie.Other Paleozoo videos include:youtu.be/PTGxJyEA_C4youtu.be/jmbRHhctDKUyoutu.be/2N81dZVA7vcyoutu.be/PLGkgSoKvtk
Diplocaulus magnicornis - Late Carboniferous amphibian. Paleozoo 2021-10-11 | Diplocaulus magnicornis is an extinct lepospondyl amphibian from the Late Carboniferous through Permian periods (300 - 250 mya). With its unusual boomerang shaped head Diplocaulus has become one of the most recognizable creatures of the Paleozoic era.A number of hypotheses have been put forward to explain the unusual morphology of Diplocaulus' s skull - ranging from its possible use as burrowing tool to a defensive adaptation that made it hard for a predator to swallow. Another hypothesis is that it provided lift when swimming - working as a kind of hydrofoil - suggesting that Diplocaulus may have been an active predator swimming up through the water column to engulf prey in its large toothed mouth.More information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auPaleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth. All models and animations are the work of paleoartist Bruce Currie.Other Paleozoo videos include:youtu.be/PTGxJyEA_C4youtu.be/jmbRHhctDKUyoutu.be/2N81dZVA7vcyoutu.be/PLGkgSoKvtk
Gogo Fish - Late Devonian placoderm predator (~ 380 mya) Paleozoo 2021-09-19 | The Gogo Fish (Macnamaraspis kaprios) is an extinct placoderm of the Late Devonian period that inhabited the ancient reef system of north Western Australia. It grew up to 500 mm in length and with its large eyes, articulated jaw and razored dentition plates the Gogo Fish would have been a formidable predator.Gogo Fish is a member of the order Arthrodira, meaning ‘jointed neck’, and like other placoderms in that order, it would have been able to attack and eat creatures that were not very much smaller than itself.It has been speculated that the armoured bite of the more predatory placoderms evolved as an effective means of cracking through the shelled defences of the plentiful arthropods. It has been noted that at around the same period trilobites began to appear with a profusion of spines, possibly as a counter defence to the predatory placoderms.The Gogo Fish became the state fossil of Western Australia in 1995.This anatomically correct model has been created by paleoartist Bruce Currie. More information on the Gogo Fish and other Devonian animals can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
State fossil Western Australia - Gogo Fish by Paleozoo Paleozoo 2021-09-16 | State fossil Western Australia. The Gogo Fish (Macnamaraspis kaprios) is an extinct placoderm of the Late Devonian period that inhabited the ancient reef system of north Western Australia. It grew up to 500 mm in length and with its large eyes, articulated jaw and razored dentition plates the Gogo Fish would have been a formidable predator.Gogo Fish is a member of the order Arthrodira, meaning ‘jointed neck’, and like other placoderms in that order, it would have been able to attack and eat creatures that were not very much smaller than itself.Remarkably intact fossil remains have been found of the Gogo Fish Mcnamaraspis in the Gogo Formation of Western Australia revealing internal organs - including the oldest heart found to date in the fossil record.It has been speculated that the armoured bite of the more predatory placoderms evolved as an effective means of cracking through the shelled defences of the plentiful arthropods. It has been noted that at around the same period trilobites began to appear with a profusion of spines, possibly as a counter defence to the predatory placoderms.The Gogo Fish became the state fossil of Western Australia in 1995.This model has been sculpted and animated by Bruce Currie with feedback on anatomy from Prof John Long. More information on the Gogo Fish and other Paleozoic animals can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
Opabinia regalis - Creature of the Cambrian Explosion Paleozoo 2021-08-08 | Opabinia regalis - creature of the Cambrian Explosion. An extinct stem-group arthropod that lived during the Middle Cambrian period (~505 mya). Its unusual morphology includes a barbed proboscis, 5 stalked compound eyes, 15 imbricating biramous lobes that run the length of a segmented body which terminates in a fan-like tail.Opabinia regalis was first discovered in the Burgess Shale by Charles Doolittle Walcott and he published the first description in 1912 - classifying Opabinia as a putative annelid. However a future more detailed description (Whittington, 1975) revealed that it was hard to place Opabinia within any existing phylum or order of creature. This realisation helped spark a great debate about the nature of the Cambrian Explosion which continues to this day. Opabinia is now thought to belong to a stem group of arthropods, (Zhang, Briggs, 2007) only indirectly related to the equally unusual Anomalocaris and possibly to the extant Tardigrades.Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth.More information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auOther Paleozoo videos:youtu.be/2LMfSTq4JIY
Placoderms of the Devonian Sea. Paleozoo 2021-04-27 | Placoderms of the Devonian Sea (419 mya -358 mya) was a time of great change for life on the planet. The colonisation of land by plants gathered pace during the early part of the Devonian and by the end of the period great forests covered the land. Arthropods are thought to have been present on land margins by as early as the Cambrian period but now insects consolidated deep inland and then the vertebrate tetrapods emerged from the water margins to begin their colonisation of the land. The Devonian period is also known as the Age of Fishes as this was the time that fish became the dominant lifeform throughout the oceans of the world - and the most dominant fish group were the armoured placoderms. Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth. More information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auOther Paleozoo videos:youtu.be/2LMfSTq4JIY
Permian Extinction Event - The Great Dying Paleozoo 2021-02-24 | There have been many extinction events, both great and small, but the most profound of these would be the Permian Extinction that ended the Palaeozoic era (252 Ma). Also known as the Great Dying, it is thought that over 90% of all marine species and 70% of all terrestrial species became extinct during this period. It is still unclear what caused this major extinction event - hypotheses include multiple meteor impacts and proximity to a local supernova - but the prevailing hypothesis is that it was caused by a flood of lava across the surface of the Earth. Situated in Northern Russia and known as the Siberian Traps these lava fields covered an area of seven million square kilometres, releasing huge amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This destructive environmental shift may have been further exacerbated by the rapid bloom of methane producing Archaean organisms (Methanosarcina) - feeding on minerals within the lava fields - deepening the global catastrophe. The rapid increase in surface temperatures brought about a collapse in the carbon cycle - starving life on land and subsequently suffocating life in the seas. No environmental niche was left unchanged by the Permian Extinction. More information can be found a https://www.paleozoo.com.au
Hallucigenia sparsa. Creature of the Cambrian Explosion Paleozoo 2021-02-23 | Hallucigenia sparsa - creature of the Cambrian Explosion. An extinct organism from the Middle Cambrian period that has become one of the most scrutinized and perplexing creatures to be discovered within the famous Burgess Shale of British Colombia. Long thought to have no living descendants, Hallucigenia is now considered part of the lobopodian worm group - indirectly related to modern velvet worms - though its exact phylogeny is still being debated. Hallucigenia was originally discovered by Charles Doolittle Walcott and described as a member of the Annelida phylum (segmented worms), but later re-examination (Conway Morris, 1977) revealed that it could not be a member of this phylum. A new reconstruction suggested an unusual creature that moved around on spines with feeding tentacles reaching up from its back. It was considered so odd that it could only be imagined as part of a hallucination, so it was given its unusual name.Further examination uncovered that the remains had previously been interpreted upside down - what were initially thought to be uniquely styled legs were in fact spines that grew up from Hallucigenia's back (Ramsköld and Hou, 1991). It was further revealed that reconstructions had also been back to front - the head was in fact the tail. This rearranging of the information helped to make sense of Hallucigenia’s anatomy although it is still regarded as bizarre. More recent examinations of Hallucigenia fossils have identified additional features that include a series of unusual feeding appendages, a mouth with pharyngeal teeth and possible eye spots (Smith &Caron, 2015). Hallucigenia has progressively revealed itself to be a highly specialised organism.Hallucigenia's lobopodian limbs would have been relatively weak and they terminated in small claws so it is thought that Hallucigenia may have lived by clinging to - and possibly eating - sponges, moving only slowly across the surface of the host whilst protecting itself from predation with its long dorsal spines.That soft bodied creatures such as Hallucigenia should have left an impression in the fossil record is remarkable in itself as it takes especially rare conditions to allow for the preservation of soft tissue - mainly by a quick burial in fine anoxic silt. These sediments are known as 'lagerstatten' and only a few have been found that contain palaeozoic life. The most famous of these is the Burgess Shale but they also include the Maotianshan Shale of China and the Emu Bay Shale of South Australia. One of the most remarkable observations about these rare and limited deposits is the great amount of life that they contain. The Burgess Shale alone has unearthed well over 65,000 specimens.Paleozoo Evolutionary Portraits are detrailed descriptions of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth and they are the work of paleoartist Bruce Currie.More information on Hallucigenia sparsa can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
Pikaia gracilens. Creature of the Cambrian Explosion. Paleozoo 2020-10-22 | Pikaia gracilens is an extinct basal chordate from the Middle Cambrian period (505 ma) which grew up to 50 mm in length.First discovered by Charles Walcott in the famous Burgess Shale there has been much debate about Pikaia's taxonomic classification – in particular its relationship to the vertebrate clade. Once thought to be the oldest known chordate - the direct ancestor of all vertebrates - Pikaia is now considered to belong to a stem group of basal chordates that included the ancestors of modern vertebrates. Even if Pikaia were not the direct ancestor of modern vertebrates a creature with many of the same anatomical features almost certainly was. This finely detailed model has been created by paleoartist Bruce Currie and it is available to purchase from Paleozoo Evolutionary Models. Further information on Pikaia & Vauxia can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
Acanthostega gunnari model Paleozoo 2020-08-04 | Acanthostega gunnari (Jarvik, 1952) is a late Devonian stem-tetrapod (~365 mya) which grew up to 60 cm in length. It is regarded as an important example of a transitional organism - displaying both fish and land tetrapod morphology - illustrating how vertebrate anatomy evolved over time.This quality model (225 mm long - scale 1:2) is made of gypsum and has been created by paleoartist Bruce Currie. Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth.More information on Acanthostega gunnari can be found at Paleozoo.com.au
Sarcopterygian Madageria fairfaxi model Paleozoo 2020-07-26 | Mandageria fairfaxi is an extinct sarcopterygian predatory fish of the Late Devonian period that grew up to 2 metres in length. The most distinguishing feature of sarcopterygians are the lobe-fins that contain rudimentary bones which correlate with the limb bones of all land vertebrates (eg. humerus, radius, ulna). These fleshy limbs may at first appear cumbersome but in conjunction with the swim bladder they allowed the fish to hold its position underwater, waiting on passing prey. Mandageria would have been a formidable ambush predator. This quality model (250 mm long - scale 1:8) is made of gypsum and has been created by paleoartist Bruce Currie.Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth.More information on Mandageria fairfaxi can be found at Paleozoo.com.au
Anomalocaris canadensis - Creature of the Cambrian Explosion Paleozoo 2020-07-26 | Anomalocaris canadensis is an extinct marine organism from the Cambrian period and it is one of the most famous and intriguing organisms in all of paleontology. With an unusual morphology that includes interleaving lobes along the side of its body, stalked compound eyes, a circular plate-rimmed mouth and a pair of distinctive grasping forelimbs, Anomalocaris was a giant of its time and is thought to have been one of nature's first apex predators.This anatomically accurate model (210 mm long - scale 1:4) has been created by paleoartist Bruce Currie.Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the first animals to evolve on Earth.More information on Anomalocaris canadensis can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
Eryops megacephalus - Late Carboniferous amphibian Paleozoo 2020-07-15 | Eryops megacephalus is an extinct amphibious temnospondyl from the late Carboniferous period (~300 mya) which grew up to 3 metres in length. With a massive mouth and powerful limbs Eryops would have been a formidable predator.Discovered in the mid19th century in the Texas Red Beds, (Cope, 1878) Eryops was quickly recognized as a large amphibious predator of the early Permian period. Subsequent fossil discoveries have placed Eryops further back in time to the late Carboniferous (Lucas, et al, 2010). There would have been many tetrapoda moving between land and water by this time but very few that could have matched Eryops for size and power. It's pelvic and pectoral girdles were massively proportioned. It also had a huge head and wide mouth filled with long, enamel teeth. Though squat in appearance Eryops would have been extremely powerful and was probably an apex predator of the Late Carboniferous period.Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the first animals to evolve on Earth.This anatomically accurate model (180 mm long - scale 1:15) has been created by paleoartist Bruce Currie.More information on Eryops megacephalus can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auOther Paleozoo videos include:youtu.be/PTGxJyEA_C4youtu.be/jmbRHhctDKUyoutu.be/2N81dZVA7vcyoutu.be/PLGkgSoKvtk
Eurypterus remipes model Paleozoo 2020-07-05 | Eurypterids are an extinct group of arthropods that dominated the Silurian period. With their semicircular head shields and broad paddle-like hind legs, they were among the most distinctive creatures to roam the ancient shallow seas. This highly detailed model (140 mm long - 140 mm high 1:1) is a gypsum plastic composite and has been created by paleoartist Bruce Currie.Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth.More information on Eurypterus remipes can be found at Paleozoo.com.au
Dunkleosteus terrelli - Apex predator - Giant Devonian placoderm. Paleozoo 2020-05-07 | Dunkleosteus terrelli is an extinct arthrodire placoderm from the Late Devonian period (358-382 ma). The apex predator of its time Dunkleosteus grew up to 9 metres in length and was possibly the largest of all creatures that existed during the Devonian Age of Fishes.Dunkleosteus is a member of the order Arthrodira - meaning "jointed neck". This anatomical feature allowed the armoured skull to pivot upwards around a cranio-thoracic joint producing an extra wide gape. This, in conjunction with a powerful jaw configuration, meant that Dunkleosteus was capable of biting down with enormous pressure (Anderson, 2007). Studies also suggest that Dunkleosteus would have been able to open its mouth extremely quickly - creating a partial vacuum that helped suck prey into the mouth.Further information on Dunkleosteus terrelli can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.auPaleozoo Evolutionary Portraits are the creation of paleoartist Bruce Currie
Opabinia regalis Paleozoo 2020-05-05 | Opabinia regalis is an extinct stem group arthropod that lived during the Middle Cambrian period. Its unusual morphology includes a barbed proboscis, 5 stalked compound eyes, 15 imbricating biramous lobes that run the length of a segmented body which terminates in a fan-like tail.Opabinia regalis was first discovered in the Burgess Shale by Charles Doolittle Walcott and he published the first description in 1912 - classifying Opabinia as a putative annelid. However a future more detailed description (Whittington, 1975) revealed that it was hard to place Opabinia within any existing phylum or order of creature. This realisation helped spark a great debate about the nature of the Cambrian Explosion which continues to this day. Opabinia is now thought to belong to a stem group of arthropods, (Zhang, Briggs, 2007) only indirectly related to the equally unusual Anomalocaris and possibly to the extant Tardigrades.Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth. More information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
Groenlandaspis sp. model Paleozoo 2020-04-10 | Groenlandaspis sp. is an extinct placoderm of Late Devonian period (360 ma). It is a member of the order Arthrodira (gk. jointed neck) and it had a distinctive thoracic shield with a pyramid-like peak that would have helped it plane through the water column. Although most of its bony plates were fused together and rigid, the nuchal gap would have allowed for some movement between the thorax and head. This anatomical feature allowed many Arthrodiri to develop large bites but Groenlandaspis is not thought to have been a predator as its mouth parts were quite small. Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth. More information on Groenlandaspis sp. can be found at Paleozoo.com.au
Groenlandaspis sp. Paleozoo 2020-04-10 | Groenlandaspis sp. is a placoderm of the Late Devonian period (360 mya). It is a member of the order Arthrodira (gk. jointed neck) and like all other placoderms it had an armoured thorax and head. Its thoracic shield was shaped into a distinctive pyramid-like peak that would have helped it plane through the water column. Groenlandaspis was probably a far ranging seabed scavenger as its remains have been found right around the world.Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth and they are the work of paleoartist Bruce Currie. More information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
Bothriolepis yeungae model Paleozoo 2020-04-07 | Bothriolepis yeungae is an extinct placoderm of the Late Devonian period (360 mya). It had a heavily armoured body and distinctive spine-like pectoral fins and grew up to 500 mm in length.Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth. More information on Bothriolepis yeungae can be found at Paleozoo.com.au
Bothriolepis yeungae Paleozoo 2020-04-07 | Bothriolepis yeungae is an extinct placoderm of the Late Devonian period (360 mya). It had a heavily armoured body and distinctive spine-like pectoral fins and grew up to 500 mm in length.Paleozoo Evolutionary Models are detailed portraits of some of the earliest complex lifeforms to evolve on Earth and they are the work of paleoartist Bruce Currie. More information can be found at https://www.paleozoo.com.au
